Aristotle, Problemata

Διὰ τί πάντες ὅσοι περιττοὶ γεγόνασιν ἄνδρες ἢ κατὰ φιλοσοφίαν ἢ πολιτικὴν ἢ ποίησιν ἢ τέχνας φαίνονται μελαγχολικοὶ ὄντες, καὶ οἱ μὲν οὕτως ὥστε καὶ λαμβάνεσθαι τοῖς ἀπὸ μελαίνης χολῆς ἀρρωστήμασιν, οἷον λέγεται τῶν τε ἡρωικῶν τὰ περὶ τὸν Ἡρακλέα. καὶ γὰρ ἐκεῖνος ἔοικε γενέσθαι ταύτης τῆς φύσεως, διὸ καὶ τὰ ἀρρωστήματα τῶν ἐπιληπτικῶν ἀπ’ ἐκείνου προσηγόρευον οἱ ἀρχαῖοι ἱερὰν νόσον. καὶ ἡ περὶ τοὺς παῖδας ἔκστασις καὶ ἡ πρὸ τῆς ἀφανίσεως ἐν Οἴτῃ τῶν ἑλκῶν ἔκφυσις γενομένη τοῦτο δηλοῖ· καὶ γὰρ τοῦτο γίνεται πολλοῖς ἀπὸ μελαίνης χολῆς. συνέβη δὲ καὶ Λυσάνδρῳ τῷ Λάκωνι πρὸ τῆς τελευτῆς γενέσθαι τὰ ἕλκη ταῦτα. ἔτι δὲ τὰ περὶ Αἴαντα καὶ Βελλεροφόντην, ὧν ὁ μὲν ἐκστατικὸς ἐγένετο παντελῶς, ὁ δὲ τὰς ἐρημίας ἐδίωκεν, διὸ οὕτως ἐποίησεν Ὅμηρος αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ καὶ κεῖνος ἀπήχθετο πᾶσι θεοῖσιν, ἤτοι ὁ καππεδίον τὸ Ἀλήϊον οἶος ἀλᾶτο, ὃν θυμὸν κατέδων, πάτον ἀνθρώπων ἀλεείνων. καὶ ἄλλοι δὲ πολλοὶ τῶν ἡρώων ὁμοιοπαθεῖς φαίνονται τούτοις. τῶν δὲ ὕστερον Ἐμπεδοκλῆς καὶ Πλάτων καὶ Σωκράτης καὶ ἕτεροι συχνοὶ τῶν γνωρίμων. ἔτι δὲ τῶν περὶ τὴν ποίησιν οἱ πλεῖστοι. πολλοῖς μὲν γὰρ τῶν τοιούτων γίνεται νοσήματα ἀπὸ τῆς τοιαύτης κράσεως τῷ σώματι, τοῖς δὲ ἡ φύσις δήλη ῥέπουσα πρὸς τὰ πάθη. πάντες δ’ οὖν ὡς εἰπεῖν ἀπλῶς εἰσί, καθάπερ ἐλέχθη, τοιοῦτοι τὴν φύσιν. δεῖ δὴ λαβεῖν τὴν αἰτίαν πρῶτον ἐπὶ παραδείγματος προχειρισαμένους. ὁ γὰρ οἶνος ὁ πολὺς μάλιστα φαίνεται παρασκευάζειν τοιούτους οἵους λέγομεν τοὺς μελαγχολικοὺς εἶναι, καὶ πλεῖστα ἤθη ποιεῖν πινόμενος, οἷον ὀργίλους, φιλανθρώπους, ἐλεήμονας, ἰταμούς· ἀλλ’ τοιούτων οὐδέν. ἴδοι δ’ ἄν τις ὅτι παντοδαποὺς ἀπεργάζεται, οἴτη θεωρῶν ὡς μεταβάλλει τοὺς πίνοντας ἐκ προσαγωγῆς· παραλαβὼν γὰρ ἀπεψυγμένους ἐν τῷ νήφειν καὶ σιωπηλοὺς μικρῷ μὲν πλείων ποθεὶς λαλιστέρους ποιεῖ, ἔτι δὲ πλείων ῥητορικοὺς καὶ θαρραλέους, προϊόντας δὲ πρὸς τὸ πράττειν ἰταμούς, ἔτι δὲ μᾶλλον πινόμενος ὑβριστάς, ἔπειτα μανικούς, λίαν δὲ πολὺς ἐκλύει καὶ ποιεῖ μωρούς, ὥσπερ τοὺς ἐκ παίδων ἐπιλήπτους ἢ καὶ ἐχομένους τοῖς μελαγχολικοῖς ἄγαν. ὥσπερ οὖν ὁ εἷς ἄνθρωπος μεταβάλλει τὸ ἦθος πίνων καὶ χρώμενος τῷ οἴνῳ ποσῷ τινί, οὕτω καθ’ ἕκαστον τὸ ἦθος εἰσί τινες ἄνθρωποι. οἷος γὰρ οὗτος μεθύων νῦν ἐστίν, ἄλλος τις τοιοῦτος φύσει ἐστίν, ὁ μὲν λάλος, ὁ δὲ κεκινημένος, ὁ δὲ ἀρίδακρυς· ποιεῖ γάρ τινας καὶ τοιούτους, διὸ καὶ Ὅμηρος ἐποίησε καί μέ φησι δακρυπλώειν βεβαρημένον οἴνῳ. καὶ γὰρ ἐλεήμονές ποτε γίνονται καὶ ἄγριοι καὶ σιωπηλοί· ἔνιοι γὰρ αὖ ἀποσιωπῶσι, καὶ μάλιστα τῶν μελαγχολικῶν ὅσοι ἐκστατικοί. ποιεῖ δὲ καὶ φιλητικοὺς ὁ οἶνος· σημεῖον δὲ ὅτι προάγεται ὁ πίνων καὶ τῷ στόματι φιλεῖν, οὓς νήφων οὐδ’ ἂν εἷς φιλήσειεν ἢ διὰ τὸ εἶδος ἢ διὰ τὴν ἡλικίαν. ὁ μὲν οὖν οἶνος οὐ πολὺν χρόνον ποιεῖ περιττόν, ἀλλ’ ὀλίγον, ἡ δὲ φύσις ἀεί, ἕως τις ἂν ᾖ· οἱ μὲν γὰρ θρασεῖς, οἱ δὲ σιωπηλοί, οἱ δὲ ἐλεήμονες, οἱ δὲ δειλοὶ γίνονται φύσει. ὥστε δῆλον ὅτι διὰ τὸ αὐτὸ ποιεῖ ὅ τε οἶνος καὶ ἡ φύσις ἑκάστου τὸ ἦθος· πάντα γὰρ κατεργάζεται τῇ θερμότητι ταμιευόμενα. ὅ τε δὴ χυμὸς καὶ ἡ κρᾶσις ἡ τῆς μελαίνης χολῆς πνευματικά ἐστιν· διὸ καὶ τὰ πνευματώδη πάθη καὶ τὰ ὑποχονδριακὰ μελαγχολικὰ οἱ ἰατροί φασιν εἶναι. καὶ ὁ οἶνος δὲ πνευματώδης τὴν δύναμιν. διὸ δή ἐστι τὴν φύσιν ὅμοια ὅ τε οἶνος καὶ ἡ κρᾶσις. δηλοῖ δὲ ὅτι πνευματώδης ὁ οἶνός ἐστιν ὁ ἀφρός· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἔλαιον θερμὸν ὄν οὐ ποιεῖ ἀφρόν, ὁ δὲ οἶνος πολύν, καὶ μᾶλλον ὁ μέλας τοῦ λευκοῦ, ὅτι θερμότερος καὶ σωματωδέστερος. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ὅ τε οἶνος ἀφροδισιαστικοὺς ἀπεργάζεται, καὶ ὀρθῶς Διόνυσος καὶ Ἀφροδίτη λέγονται μετ’ ἀλλήλων εἶναι, καὶ οἱ μελαγχολικοὶ οἱ πλεῖστοι λάγνοι εἰσίν. ὅ τε γὰρ ἀφροδισιασμὸς πνευματώδης. σημεῖον δὲ τὸ αἰδοῖον, ὡς ἐκ μικροῦ ταχεῖαν ποιεῖται τὴν αὔξησιν διὰ τὸ ἐμφυσᾶσθαι. καὶ ἔτι πρὶν δύνασθαι προΐεσθαι σπέρμα, γίνεταί τις ἡδονὴ ἔτι παισὶν οὖσιν, ὅταν ἐγγὺς ὄντες τοῦ ἡβᾶν ξύωνται τὰ αἰδοῖα δι’ ἀκολασίαν· γίνεται δὲ δῆλον διὰ τὸ πνεῦμα διεξιέναι διὰ τῶν πόρων, δι’ ὧν ὕστερον τὸ ὑγρὸν φέρεται. ἥ τε ἔκχυσις τοῦ σπέρματος ἐν ταῖς ὁμιλίαις καὶ ἡ ῥῖψις ὑπὸ τοῦ πνεύματος ὠθοῦντος φανερὸν γίνεσθαι. ὥστε καὶ τῶν ἐδεσμάτων καὶ ποτῶν εὐλόγως ταῦτ’ ἐστὶν ἀφροδισιαστικά, ὅσα πνευματώδη τὸν περὶ τὰ αἰδοῖα ποιεῖ τόπον. διὸ καὶ ὁ μέλας οἶνος οὐδενὸς ἧττον τοιούτους ἀπεργάζεται, οἷοι καὶ οἱ μελαγχολικοὶ πνευματώδεις. δῆλοι δ’ εἰσὶν ἐπ’ ἐνίων· σκληροὶ γὰρ οἱ πλείους τῶν μελαγχολικῶν, καὶ αἱ φλέβες ἐξέχουσιν· τούτου δ’ αἴτιον οὐ τὸ τοῦ αἵματος πλῆθος, ἀλλὰ τοῦ πνεύματος, διότι δὲ οὐδὲ πάντες οἱ μελαγχολικοὶ σκληροὶ οὐδὲ οἱ μέλανες, ἀλλ’ οἱ μᾶλλον κακόχυμοι, ἄλλος λόγος· περὶ οὗ δὲ ἐξ ἀρχῆς προειλόμεθα διελθεῖν, ὅτι ἐν τῇ φύσει εὐθὺς ὁ τοιοῦτος χυμὸς ὁ μελαγχολικὸς κεράννυται· θερμοῦ γὰρ καὶ ψυχροῦ κρᾶσίς ἐστιν· ἐκ τούτων γὰρ τῶν δυοῖν ἡ φύσις συνέστηκεν. διὸ καὶ ἡ μέλαινα χολὴ καὶ θερμότατον καὶ ψυχρότατον γίνεται. τὸ γὰρ αὐτὸ πάσχειν πέφυκε ταῦτ’ ἄμφω, οἷον καὶ τὸ ὕδωρ ὂν. ψυχρόν, ὅμως ἐὰν ἱκανῶς θερμανθῇ, οἷον τὸ ζέον, τῆς φλογὸς αὐτῆς θερμότερόν ἐστι, καὶ λίθος καὶ σίδηρος διάπυρα γενόμενα μᾶλλον θερμὰ γίνεται ἄνθρακος, ψυχρὰ ὄντα φύσει. εἴρηται δὲ σαφέστερον περὶ τούτων ἐν τοῖς περὶ πυρός. καὶ ἡ χολὴ δὲ ἡ μέλαινα φύσει ψυχρὰ καὶ οὐκ ἐπιπολαίως οὖσα, ὅταν μὲν οὕτως ἔχῃ ὡς εἴρηται, ἐὰν ὑπερβάλλῃ ἐν τῷ σώματι, ἀποπληξίας ἢ νάρκας ἢ ἀθυμίας ποιεῖ ἢ φόβους, ἐὰν δὲ ὑπερθερμανθῇ, τὰς μετ’ ᾠδῆς εὐθυμίας καὶ ἐκστάσεις καὶ ἐκζέσεις ἑλκῶν καὶ ἄλλα τοιαῦτα. τοῖς μὲν οὖν πολλοῖς ἀπὸ τῆς καθ’ ἡμέραν τροφῆς ἐγγινομένη οὐδὲν τὸ ἦθος ποιεῖ διαφόρους, ἀλλὰ μόνον νόσημά τι μελαγχολικὸν ἀπειργάσατο. ὅσοις δὲ ἐν τῇ φύσει συνέστη κρᾶσις τοιαύτη, εὐθὺς οὗτοι τὰ ἤθη γίνονται παντοδαποί, ἄλλος κατ’ ἄλλην κρᾶσιν· οἷον ὅσοις μὲν πολλὴ καὶ ψυχρὰ ἐνυπάρχει, νωθροὶ καὶ μωροί, ὅσοις δὲ λίαν πολλὴ καὶ θερμή, μανικοὶ καὶ εὐφυεῖς καὶ ἐρωτικοὶ καὶ εὐκίνητοι πρὸς τοὺς θυμοὺς καὶ τὰς ἐπιθυμίας, ἔνιοι δὲ καὶ λάλοι μᾶλλον. πολλοὶ δὲ καὶ διὰ τὸ ἐγγὺς εἶναι τοῦ νοεροῦ τόπου τὴν θερμότητα ταύτην νοσήμασιν ἁλίσκονται μανικοῖς ἢ ἐνθουσιαστικοῖς, ὅθεν Σίβυλλαι καὶ Βάκιδες καὶ οἱ ἔνθεοι γίνονται πάντες, ὅταν μὴ νοσήματι γένωνται ἀλλὰ φυσικῇ κράσει. Μαρακὸς δὲ ὁ Συρακούσιος καὶ ἀμείνων ἦν ποιητής, ὅτ’ ἐκσταίη. ὅσοις δ’ ἂν ἐπανθῇ τὴν ἄγαν θερμότητα πρὸς τὸ μέσον, οὗτοι μελαγχολικοὶ μέν εἰσι, φρονιμώτεροι δέ, καὶ ἧττον μὲν ἔκτοποι, πρὸς πολλὰ δὲ διαφέροντες τῶν ἄλλων, οἱ μὲν πρὸς παιδείαν, οἱ δὲ πρὸς τέχνας, οἱ δὲ πρὸς πολιτείαν. πολλὴν δὲ καὶ εἰς τοὺς κινδύνους ποιεῖ διαφορὰν ἡ τοιαύτη ἕξις τοῦ ἐνίοτε ἀνωμάλους εἶναι μὲν τοῖς φόβοις πολλοὺς τῶν ἀνδρῶν. ὡς γὰρ ἂν τύχωσι τὸ σῶμα ἔχοντες πρὸς τὴν τοιαύτην κρᾶσιν, διαφέρουσιν αὐτοὶ αὑτῶν. ἡ δὲ μελαγχολικὴ κρᾶσις, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐν ταῖς νόσοις ἀνωμάλους ποιεῖ, οὕτω καὶ αὐτὴ ἀνώμαλός ἐστιν· ὁτὲ μὲν γὰρ ψυχρά ἐστιν ὥσπερ ὕδωρ, ὁτὲ δὲ θερμή. ὥστε φοβερόν τι ὄταν εἰσαγγελθῇ, ἐὰν μὲν ψυχροτέρας οὔσης τῆς κράσεως τύχῃ, δειλὸν ποιεῖ· προωδοπεποίηκε γὰρ τῷ φόβῳ, καὶ ὁ φόβος καταψύχει. δηλοῦσι δὲ οἱ περίφοβοι· τρέμουσι γάρ. ἐὰν δὲ μᾶλλον θερμή, εἰς τὸ μέτριον κατέστησεν ὁ φόβος, καὶ ἐν αὐτῷ καὶ ἀπαθῆ. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ πρὸς τὰς καθ’ ἡμέραν ἀθυμίας· πολλάκις γὰρ οὕτως ἔχομεν ὥστε λυπεῖσθαι, ἐφ’ ὅτῳ δέ, οὐκ ἄν ἔχοιμεν εἰπεῖν· ὁτὲ δὲ εὐθύμως, ἐφ’ ᾧ δ’ οὐ δῆλον. τὰ δὴ τοιαῦτα πάθη καὶ τὰ παλαιὰ λεχθέντα κατὰ μέν τι μικρὸν πᾶσι γίνεται· πᾶσι γὰρ μέμικταί τι τῆς δυνάμεως· ὅσοις δ’ εἰς βάθος, οὗτοι δ’ ἤδη ποιοί τινές εἰσι τὰ ἤθη. ὥσπερ γὰρ τὸ εἶδος ἕτεροι γίνονται οὐ τῷ πρόσωπον ἔχειν, ἀλλὰ τῷ ποιόν τι τὸ πρόσωπον, οἱ μὲν καλόν, οἱ δὲ αἰσχρόν, οἱ δὲ μηθὲν ἔχοντες περιττόν, οὗτοι δὲ μέσοι τὴν φύσιν, οὔτῳ καὶ οἱ μὲν μικρὰ μετέχοντες τῆς τοιαύτης κράσεως μέσοι εἰσίν, οἱ δὲ πλήθους ἤδη ἀνόμοιοι τοῖς πολλοῖς. ἐὰν μὲν γὰρ σφόδρα κατακορὴς ᾖ ἡ ἕξις, μελαγχολικοί εἰσὶ λίαν, ἐὰν δέ πως κραθῶσι, περιττοί. ῥέπουσι δ’, ἂν ἀμελῶσιν, ἐπὶ τὰ μελαγχολικὰ νοσήματα, ἄλλοι περὶ ἄλλο μέρος τοῦ σώματος· καὶ τοῖς μὲν ἐπιληπτικὰ ἀποσημαίνει, τοῖς δὲ ἀποπληκτικά, ἄλλοις δὲ ἀθυμίαι ἰσχυραὶ ἢ φόβοι, τοῖς δὲ θάρρη λίαν, οἷον καὶ Ἀρχελάῳ συνέβαινε τῷ Μακεδονίας βασιλεῖ. σιτίον δὲ τῆς τοιαύτης δυνάμεως ἡ κρᾶσις, ὅπως ἂν ἔχῃ ψύξεώς τε καὶ θερμότητος. ψυχροτέρα μὲν γὰρ οὖσα τοῦ καιροῦ δυσθυμίας ποιεῖ ἀλόγους· διὸ αἵ τ’ ἀγχόναι μάλιστα τοῖς νέοις, ἐνίοτε δὲ καὶ πρεσβυτέροις. πολλοὶ δὲ καὶ μετὰ τὰς μέθας διαφθείρουσιν ἑαυτούς. ἔνιοι δὲ τῶν μελαγχολικῶν ἐκ τῶν πότων ἀθύμως διάγουσιν· σβέννυσι γὰρ ἡ τοῦ οἴνου θερμότης τὴν φυσικὴν θερμότητα. τὸ δὲ θερμὸν τὸ περὶ τὸν τόπον ᾧ φρονοῦμεν καὶ ἐλπίζομεν ποιεῖ εὐθύμους. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο πρὸς τὸ πίνειν εἰς μέθην πάντες ἔχουσι προθύμως, ὅτι πάντας ὁ οἶνος ὁ πολὺς εὐέλπιδας ποιεῖ, καθάπερ ἡ νεότης τοὺς παῖδας· τὸ μὲν γὰρ γῆρας δύσελπί ἐστιν, ἡ δὲ νεότης ἐλπίδος πλήρης. εἰσὶ δέ τινες ὀλίγοι οὓς πίνοντας δυσθυμίαι λαμβάνουσι, διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν δι’ ἣν καὶ μετὰ τοὺς πότους ἐνίους. ὅσοις μὲν οὖν μαραινομένου τοῦ θερμοῦ αἱ ἀθυμίαι γίνονται, μᾶλλον ἀπάγχονται. διὸ καὶ οἱ νέοι ἢ καὶ οἱ πρεσβῦται μᾶλλον ἀπάγχονται· τὸ μὲν γὰρ γῆρας μαραίνει τὸ θερμόν, τῶν δὲ τὸ πάθος φυσικὸν ὂν καὶ αὐτὸ τὸ μαραινόμενον θερμόν. ὅσοις δὲ σβεννυμένου, ἐξαίφνης οἱ πλεῖστοι διαχρῶνται ἑαυτούς, ὥστε θαυμάζειν πάντας διὰ τὸ μηθὲν ποιῆσαι σημεῖον πρότερον. ψυχροτέρα μὲν οὖν γινομένη ἡ κρᾶσις ἡ ἀπὸ τῆς μελαίνης χολῆς, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, ποιεῖ ἀθυμίας παντοδαπάς, θερμοτέρα δὲ οὖσα εὐθυμίας. διὸ καὶ οἱ μὲν παῖδες εὐθυμότεροι, οἱ δὲ γέροντες δυσθυμότεροι. οἱ μὲν γὰρ θερμοί, οἱ δὲ ψυχροί· τὸ γὰρ γῆρας κατάψυξίς τις. συμβαίνει δὲ σβέννυσθαι ἐξαίφνης ὑπό τε τῶν ἐκτὸς αἰτιῶν, ὡς καὶ παρὰ φύσιν τὰ πυρωθέντα, οἷον ἄνθρακα ὕδατος ἐπιχυθέντος. διὸ καὶ ἐκ μέθης ἔνιοι ἑαυτοὺς διαχρῶνται· ἡ γὰρ ἀπὸ τοῦ οἴνου θερμότης ἐπείσακτός ἐστιν, ἧς σβεννυμένης συμβαίνει τὸ πάθος. καὶ μετὰ τὰ ἀφροδίσια οἱ πλεῖστοι ἀθυμότεροι γίνονται, ὅσοι δὲ περίττωμα πολὺ προίενται μετὰ τοῦ σπέρματος, οὗτοι εὐθυμότεροι· κουφίζονται γὰρ περιττώματός τε καὶ πνεύματος καὶ θερμοῦ ὑπερβολῆς. ἐκεῖνοι δὲ ἀθυμότεροι πολλάκις· καταψύχονται γὰρ ἀφροδισιάσαντες διὰ τὸ τῶν ἱκανῶν τι ἀφαιρεθῆναι· δηλοῖ δὲ τοῦτο τὸ μὴ πολλὴν τὴν ἀπορροὴν γεγονέναι. ὡς οὖν ἐν κεφαλαίῳ εἰπεῖν, διὰ μὲν τὸ ἀνώμαλον εἶναι τὴν δύναμιν τῆς μελαίνης χολῆς ἀνώμαλοί εἰσιν οἱ μελαγχολικοί· καὶ γὰρ ψυχρὰ σφόδρα γίνεται καὶ θερμή. διὰ δὲ τὸ ἠθοποιὸς εἶναι (ἠθοποιὸν γὰρ τὸ θερμὸν καὶ ψυχρὸν μάλιστα τῶν ἐν ἡμῖν ἐστὶν) ὥσπερ ὁ οἶνος πλείων καὶ ἐλάττων κεραννύμενος τῷ σώματι ποιεῖ τὸ ἦθος ποιούς τινας ἡμᾶς. ἄμφω δὲ πνευματικά, καὶ ὁ οἶνος καὶ ἡ μέλαινα χολή. ἐπεὶ δ’ ἔστι καὶ εὔκρατον εἶναι τὴν ἀνωμαλίαν καὶ καλῶς πως ἔχειν, καὶ ὅπου δεῖ θερμοτέραν εἶναι τὴν διάθεσιν καὶ πάλιν ψυχράν, ἢ τοὐναντίον διὰ τὸ ὑπερβολὴν ἔχειν, περιττοὶ μέν εἰσι πάντες οἱ μελαγχολικοί, οὐ διὰ νόσον, ἀλλὰ διὰ φύσιν.

Why is it that all men who have become outstanding in philosophy or statesmanship or poetry or the arts are evidently melancholic, and some of them to such a degree that they are even seized by the illnesses that come from black bile, as is said of Heracles among the heroes? For he too seems to have been of this nature, which is why the ancients named the illnesses of epileptics after him, calling them the sacred disease. His derangement concerning his children shows this, and so does the eruption of sores that came before his disappearance on Oeta; for this too happens to many from black bile. These sores also came upon Lysander the Spartan before his death. Further, there are the cases of Ajax and Bellerophon, of whom the one went entirely out of his mind, and the other sought out deserted places, which is why Homer wrote thus: “But when he too was hated by all the gods, then he wandered alone over the Aleian plain, eating his own heart, shunning the path of men.” And many others of the heroes evidently suffered as these did. Among later men, Empedocles and Plato and Socrates and a good many other well-known men; and further, most of those concerned with poetry. For many such men get diseases in the body from this kind of mixture, while in others their nature plainly inclines towards these affections. All of them, then, simply speaking, are, as was said, of this kind by nature. We must grasp the cause by first taking up an example. Wine in quantity most evidently makes men such as we say melancholics are, and when drunk it produces very many characters, for instance irascible, kindly, compassionate, reckless; but nothing of such things. One could see that it produces every kind [of man] by observing how it changes drinkers little by little: for, taking them over cold and silent in their sobriety, when a little more is drunk it makes them more talkative; with still more, eloquent and bold; and as they go on towards action, reckless; drunk still further, insolent, then manic; and very much of it enfeebles them and makes them stupid, like those who have been epileptic from childhood or those gripped too strongly by melancholic illnesses. Just as one man, then, changes his character as he drinks and takes wine in a certain quantity, so for each character there are some men [who have it]. For what this man is now while drunk, some other man is by nature: one talkative, another excited, another quick to tears; for [wine] makes some men like this too, which is why Homer wrote, “and he says that I swim in tears, weighed down with wine.” For they also become compassionate at times, and savage, and silent; for some in turn fall silent, especially those of the melancholics who are out of their minds. Wine also makes men affectionate; a sign of this is that the drinker is led on to kiss, even with the mouth, people whom not one sober man would kiss, whether because of their looks or their age. Wine, then, makes a man extraordinary not for a long time but for a short one, but nature does so always, for as long as he lives; for some are bold, some silent, some compassionate, some cowardly by nature. So it is clear that wine and each man’s nature produce character by means of the same thing; for everything is brought about when it is regulated by heat. Now the humour and the mixture of black bile are both airy; which is why the doctors say that windy conditions and those of the hypochondria are melancholic. Wine too is airy in its power. That is why wine and the [melancholic] mixture are alike in nature. The froth shows that wine is airy; for oil, though it is hot, does not make froth, but wine makes a great deal, and dark wine more than white, because it is hotter and more full-bodied. And for this reason wine makes men amorous, and Dionysus and Aphrodite are rightly said to belong together, and most melancholics are lustful. For sexual arousal is airy. A sign of this is the penis, how quickly it grows from small through being inflated. And even before they are able to emit seed, a certain pleasure comes to boys while they are still children, when, being near puberty, they rub their genitals out of wantonness; and it is clear that [this happens] because air passes through the channels through which the fluid later travels. And the outpouring of seed in intercourse and its ejection evidently happen through the push of air. So it is reasonable that those foods and drinks are aphrodisiac which make the region of the genitals airy. That is why dark wine, as much as anything, makes men such as the melancholics are, airy. And they are visibly so in some cases; for most melancholics are hard [of body], and their veins stand out; the cause of this is the quantity not of blood but of air. But why not all melancholics are hard, nor all dark ones, but rather those with worse humours, is another discussion. To return to what we chose at the start to discuss: this melancholic humour is mixed into the nature from the outset; for it is a mixture of hot and cold, and of these two the nature is composed. That is why black bile becomes both very hot and very cold. For the same thing can naturally undergo both, as water, which is cold, nevertheless, if sufficiently heated, as when boiling, is hotter than flame itself; and stone and iron, when made red-hot, become hotter than charcoal, though they are cold by nature. This has been discussed more clearly in the works on fire. And black bile, being cold by nature and not merely on the surface, when it is in the state described, if it is in excess in the body, produces apoplexies or numbness or despondency or fears; but if it is overheated, cheerfulness with song, and frenzies, and eruptions of sores, and other such things. In most people, then, arising from their daily food, it makes them no different in character, but only produces some melancholic disease. But those in whose nature such a mixture has been established at once become of every kind in character, each according to his different mixture: those, for instance, in whom it is present in quantity and cold are sluggish and stupid; those in whom it is very abundant and hot are manic and gifted and amorous and easily moved to anger and to desire, and some also more talkative. Many too, because this heat is near the seat of the intellect, are seized by manic or inspired diseases, which is how Sibyls and Bakides and all the divinely possessed come to be, when they become so not through disease but through their natural mixture. Maracus of Syracuse was an even better poet when he was out of his mind. But those in whom the excessive heat is brought down towards the mean are melancholic, but more sensible, and less eccentric, and superior to others in many things, some in education, some in the arts, some in public life. Such a condition also makes a great difference in dangers, in that many men are sometimes inconsistent in their fears. For according to the state their body happens to be in with regard to such a mixture, they differ from themselves. The melancholic mixture, just as it makes men inconsistent in diseases, is itself inconsistent too; for sometimes it is cold like water, sometimes hot. So when something frightening is announced, if it happens when the mixture is colder, it makes a man cowardly; for it has prepared the way for fear, and fear chills. The terrified show this, for they tremble. But if it is hotter, fear brings him to a moderate state, and he is self-possessed and unmoved. So it is also with everyday despondency; for often we are in such a state that we grieve, but over what, we could not say; and sometimes we are cheerful, but over what is not clear. Such affections, and those mentioned earlier, occur to a small degree in everyone, for something of this power is mixed into everyone; but those in whom it goes deep are thereby of a particular character. For just as men become different in appearance not by having a face but by having a face of a certain kind, some beautiful, some ugly, others having nothing out of the ordinary, and these are average in nature, so too those who have a small share of this mixture are average, but those who have a large amount are thereby unlike the many. For if the condition is very intense, they are too melancholic, but if they are tempered somehow, they are outstanding. But if they are careless, they incline towards melancholic diseases, different people in different parts of the body: in some, epileptic symptoms appear, in others apoplectic, in others strong despondency or fears, in others excessive boldness, as happened to Archelaus, king of Macedonia. The cause of such a power is the mixture, according to how it stands in respect of cold and heat. For when it is colder than is fitting, it produces irrational despondencies; which is why hangings happen most among the young, and sometimes also among older men. Many also destroy themselves after bouts of drunkenness. And some of the melancholics spend their time in despondency after drinking; for the heat of wine quenches the natural heat. Heat in the region with which we think and hope makes men cheerful. And for this reason all are eager to drink until drunk, because much wine makes everyone hopeful, as youth does children; for old age is despairing, but youth is full of hope. There are a few whom despondency seizes while they drink, for the same reason as [it seizes] some after drinking. Those, then, in whom despondency arises as the heat dies down are more inclined to hang themselves. That is why the young or the old are more inclined to hang themselves; for old age makes the heat die down, while in the young the affection, being natural, is itself also heat dying down. But of those in whom [it arises] as the heat is quenched, most do away with themselves suddenly, so that everyone is amazed, because they gave no sign beforehand. The mixture that comes from black bile, then, when it becomes colder, as has been said, produces despondencies of every kind, and when it is hotter, cheerfulness. That is why children are more cheerful and old men more despondent; for the former are hot and the latter cold, since old age is a kind of chilling. It happens that [the heat] is suddenly quenched by external causes, as with things heated contrary to their nature, for instance a coal when water is poured on it. That is why some do away with themselves after drunkenness; for the heat from wine is brought in from outside, and when it is quenched the affection results. And after sex most men become more despondent, but those who emit much residue with the seed are more cheerful; for they are relieved of residue and of air and of an excess of heat. The others are often more despondent; for they are chilled by having sex, because something of what they need has been taken away; this is shown by the discharge not having been great. To put it in summary, then: because the power of black bile is inconsistent, melancholics are inconsistent; for it becomes both very cold and hot. And because it forms character (for hot and cold are the most character-forming of the things in us), like wine mixed into the body in greater or lesser amount, it makes us of a certain kind in character. Both are airy, wine and black bile. And since it is possible for the inconsistency to be well tempered and to be in a good state in some way, and, where need be, for the disposition to be hotter and then again cold, or the reverse, because of having an excess, all melancholics are outstanding, not through disease but through nature.