Aristotle, Historia animalium

Λοιπὸν δὲ τῶν ἐναίμων ζῴων τὸ τῶν ὄφεων γένος. Ἔστι δὲ κοινὸν ἀμφοῖν· τὸ μὲν γὰρ πλεῖστον αὐτῶν χερσαῖόν ἐστιν, ὀλίγον δὲ τὸ τῶν ἐνύδρων ἐν τοῖς ποτίμοις ὕδασι διατελεῖ. Εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ θαλάττιοι ὄφεις, παραπλήσιοι τὴν μορφὴν τοῖς χερσαίοις τἆλλα· πλὴν τὴν κεφαλὴν ἔχουσι γογγροειδεστέραν. Γένη δὲ πολλὰ τῶν θαλαττίων ὄφεών ἐστι, καὶ χρόαν ἔχουσι παντοδαπήν· οὐ γίγνονται δ’ οὗτοι ἐν τοῖς σφόδρα βαθέσιν. Ἄποδες δ’ εἰσὶν οἱ ὄφεις ὥσπερ τὸ τῶν ἰχθύων γένος. Εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ σκολόπενδραι θαλάττιαι, παραπλήσιαι τὸ εἶδος ταῖς χερσαίαις, τὸ δὲ μέγεθος μικρῷ ἐλάττους· γίγνονται δὲ περὶ τοὺς πετρὤδεις τόπους. Τὴν δὲ χροιάν εἰσιν ἐρυθρότεραι καὶ πολύποδες μᾶλλον καὶ λεπτοσκελέστεραι τῶν χερσαίων. Οὐ γίγνονται δ’ οὐδ’ αὐταί, ὥσπερ οὐδ’ οἱ ὄφεις, ἐν τοῖς βαθέσι σφόδρα. Ἔστι δ’ ἰχθύδιόν τι τῶν πετραίων, ὃ καλοῦσί τινες ἐχενηΐδα, καὶ χρῶνταί τινες αὐτῷ πρὸς δίκας καὶ φίλτρα· ἔστι δὲ ἄβρωτον· τοῦτο δ’ ἔνιοί φασιν ἔχειν πόδας οὐκ ἔχον, ἀλλὰ φαίνεται διὰ τὸ τὰς πτέρυγας ὁμοίας ἔχειν ποσίν.

There remains, among the blooded animals, the kind of snakes. It shares in both [land and water]: most of them live on land, but a small part, that of the water-dwelling ones, lives in fresh waters. There are also sea snakes, similar in form to the land ones in other respects, except that they have a head more like a conger eel’s. There are many kinds of sea snakes, and they have all sorts of colours; these are not found in very deep water. Snakes are footless, like the kind of fishes. There are also sea centipedes, similar in appearance to the land ones but a little smaller in size; they are found around rocky places. In colour they are redder, and they have more feet and thinner legs than the land ones. These too, like the snakes, are not found in very deep water. There is a little rock fish which some call echeneis [‘ship-holder’], and some people use it for lawsuits and love-charms; it is not edible. Some say it has feet, though it has none, but it seems to have them because its fins are like feet.

Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων καὶ πλωτῶν καὶ πτηνῶν, καὶ περὶ τῶν πεζῶν ὅσα ᾠοτοκεῖ, σχεδὸν εἴρηται περὶ πάντων, περί τε ὀχείας καὶ κυήσεως καὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν ὁμοιοτρόπων τούτοις· περὶ δὲ τῶν πεζῶν ὅσα ζῳοτοκεῖ καὶ περὶ ἀνθρώπου λεκτέον τὰ συμβαίνοντα τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον. Περὶ μὲν οὖν ὀχείας εἴρηται καὶ ἰδίᾳ καὶ κοινῇ κατὰ πάντων. Πάντων δὲ κοινὸν τῶν ζῴων τὸ περὶ τὴν ἐπιθυμίαν καὶ τὴν ἡδονὴν ἐπτοῆσθαι τὴν ἀπὸ τῆς ὀχείας μάλιστα. Τὰ μὲν οὖν θήλεα χαλεπώτατα, ὅταν ἐκτέκωσι πρῶτον, οἱ δ’ ἄρρενες περὶ τὴν ὀχείαν. Οἵ τε γὰρ ἵπποι δάκνουσι τοὺς ἵππους καὶ καταβάλλουσι καὶ διώκουσι τοὺς ἱππέας, καὶ οἱ ὕες οἱ ἄγριοι χαλεπώτατοι, καίπερ ἀσθενέστατοι περὶ τὸν καιρὸν τοῦτον ὄντες, διὰ τὴν ὀχείαν, καὶ πρὸς ἀλλήλους μὲν ποιοῦνται μάχας θαυμαστάς, θωρακίζοντες ἑαυτοὺς καὶ ποιοῦντες τὸ δέρμα ὡς παχύτατον ἐκ παρασκευῆς, πρὸς τὰ δένδρα τρίβοντες καὶ τῷ πηλῷ μολύνοντες πολλάκις καὶ ξηραίνοντες ἑαυτούς· μάχονται δὲ πρὸς ἀλλήλους, ἐξελαύνοντες ἐκ τῶν συοφορβίων, οὕτω σφοδρῶς ὥστε πολλάκις ἀμφότεροι ἀποθνήσκουσιν. Ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ οἱ ταῦροι καὶ οἱ κριοὶ καὶ οἱ τράγοι· πρότερον γὰρ ὄντες σύννομοι ἕκαστοι περὶ τοὺς καιροὺς τῆς ὀχείας μάχονται διιστάμενοι πρὸς ἀλλήλους. Χαλεπὸς δὲ καὶ ὁ κάμηλος περὶ τὴν ὀχείαν ὁ ἄρρην, ἐάν τε ἄνθρωπος ἐάν τε κάμηλος πλησιάζῃ· ἵππῳ μὲν γὰρ ὅλως ἀεὶ πολεμεῖ. Τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀγρίων· καὶ γὰρ ἄρκτοι καὶ λύκοι καὶ λέοντες χαλεποὶ τοῖς πλησιάζουσι γίνονται περὶ τὸν καιρὸν τοῦτον, πρὸς ἀλλήλους δ’ ἧττον μάχονται διὰ τὸ μὴ ἀγελαῖον εἶναι μηθὲν τῶν τοιούτων ζῴων. Χαλεπαὶ δὲ καὶ αἱ θήλειαι ἄρκτοι ἀπὸ τῶν σκύμνων, ὥσπερ καὶ αἱ κύνες ἀπὸ τῶν σκυλακίων. Ἐξαγριαίνονται δὲ καὶ οἱ ἐλέφαντες περὶ τὴν ὀχείαν, διό περ φασὶν οὐκ ἐᾶν αὐτοὺς ὀχεύειν τὰς θηλείας τοὺς τρέφοντας ἐν τοῖς Ἰνδοῖς· ἐμμανεῖς γὰρ γινομένους ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τούτοις ἀνατρέπειν τὰς οἰκήσεις αὐτῶν ἅτε φαύλως ᾠκοδομημένας, καὶ ἄλλα πολλὰ ἐργάζεσθαι. Φασὶ δὲ καὶ τὴν τῆς τροφῆς δαψίλειαν πραοτέρους αὐτοὺς παρέχειν· καὶ προσάγοντες δ’ αὐτοῖς ἑτέρους κολάζουσι καὶ δουλοῦνται προστάττοντες τύπτειν τοῖς προσαγομένοις. Τὰ δὲ πολλάκις ποιούμενα τὰς ὀχείας καὶ μὴ κατὰ μίαν ὥραν, οἷον τὰ συνανθρωπευόμενα, ὕες τε καὶ κύνες, ἧττον τοιαῦτα ποιοῦντα φαίνεται διὰ τὴν ἀφθονίαν τῆς ὁμιλίας. Τῶν δὲ θηλειῶν ὁρμητικῶς ἔχουσι πρὸς τὸν συνδυασμὸν μάλιστα μὲν ἵππος, ἔπειτα βοῦς. Αἱ μὲν οὖν ἵπποι αἱ θήλειαι ἱππομανοῦσιν· ὅθεν καὶ ἐπὶ τὴν βλασφημίαν τὸ ὄνομα αὐτῶν ἐπιφέρουσιν ἀπὸ μόνου τῶν ζῴων τὴν ἐπὶ τῶν ἀκολάστων περὶ τὸ ἀφροδισιάζεσθαι. Λέγονται δὲ καὶ ἐξανεμοῦσθαι περὶ τὸν καιρὸν τοῦτον· διὸ ἐν Κρήτῃ οὐκ ἐξαιροῦσι τὰ ὀχεῖα ἐκ τῶν θηλειῶν. Ὅταν δὲ τοῦτο πάθωσι, θέουσιν ἐκ τῶν ἄλλων ἵππων. Ἔστι δὲ τὸ πάθος ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ὑῶν λέγεται τὸ καπρίζειν. Θέουσι δὲ οὔτε πρὸς ἕω οὔτε πρὸς δυσμάς, ἀλλὰ πρὸς ἄρκτον ἤ νότον. Ὅταν δ’ ἐμπέσῃ τὸ πάθος, οὐδένα ἐῶσι πλησιάζειν, ἕως ἂν ἢ ἀπείπωσι διὰ τὸν πόνον ἢ πρὸς θάλατταν ἔλθωσιν· τότε δ’ ἐκβάλλουσί τι. Καλοῦσι δὲ καὶ τοῦτο, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τοῦ τικτομένου, ἱππομανές· ἔστι δ’ οἷον ἡ καπρία, καὶ ζητοῦσι τοῦτο μάλιστα πάντων αἱ περὶ τὰς φαρμακείας. Περὶ δὲ τὴν ὥραν τῆς ὀχείας συγκύπτουσί τε πρὸς ἀλλήλας μᾶλλον ἢ πρότερον, καὶ τὴν κέρκον κινοῦσι πυκνά, καὶ τὴν φωνὴν ἀφιᾶσιν ἀλλοιοτέραν ἢ κατὰ τὸν ἄλλον χρόνον· ῥεῖ δ’ αὐταῖς ἐκ τοῦ αἰδοίου ὅμοιον γονῇ, λεπτότερον δὲ πολὺ ἢ τὸ τοῦ ἄρρενος· καὶ καλοῦσι τοῦτό τινες ἱππομανές, ἀλλ’ οὐ τὸ ἐπὶ τοῖς πώλοις ἐπιφυόμενον· ἐργῶδες δ’ εἶναί φασι λαβεῖν· κατὰ μικρὸν γὰρ ῥεῖν. Καὶ οὐροῦσι δὲ πολλάκις, ὅταν σκυζῶσι, καὶ πρὸς αὑτὰς παίζουσιν. Τὰ μὲν οὖν περὶ τοὺς ἵππους τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον, αἱ δὲ βόες ταυρῶσιν· οὕτω δὲ σφόδρα κατακώχιμαι τῷ πάθει γίνονται, ὥστε μὴ δύνασθαι αὐτῶν κρατεῖν μηδὲ λαμβάνεσθαι τοὺς βουκόλους. Δῆλαι δ’ εἰσὶ καὶ αἱ ἵπποι καὶ αἱ βόες, ὅταν ὀργῶσι πρὸς τὴν ὀχείαν, καὶ τῇ ἐπάρσει τῶν αἰδοίων, καὶ τῷ πυκνὰ οὐρεῖν αἱ βόες ὥσπερ αἱ ἵπποι. Ἔτι δ’ αἵ γε βόες ἐπὶ τοὺς ταύρους ἀναβαίνουσι, καὶ παρακολουθοῦσιν ἀεί, καὶ παρεστᾶσιν. Πρότερα δὲ τὰ νεώτερα ὀργᾷ πρὸς τὴν ὀχείαν καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἵπποις καὶ ἐν τοῖς βουσίν· καὶ ὅταν εὐημερίαι γίνωνται καὶ τὰ σώματα εὖ ἔχωσι, μᾶλλον ὀργῶσιν. Αἱ μὲν οὖν ἵπποι ὅταν ἀποκείρωνται, ἀποπαύονται τῆς ὁρμῆς μᾶλλον καὶ γίνονται κατηφέστεραι. Οἱ δ’ ἄρρενες ἵπποι διαγινώσκουσι τὰς θηλείας τὰς συννόμους ταῖς ὀσμαῖς, κἂν ὀλίγας ἡμέρας ἅμα γένωνται πρὸ τῆς ὀχείας· κἂν ἀναμιχθῶσιν ἀλλήλοις, ἐξελαύνουσι δάκνοντες, καὶ νέμονται χωρίς, ἕκαστοι τὰς ἑαυτῶν ἔχοντες. Διδόασι δ’ ἑκάστῳ περὶ τριάκοντα ἢ μικρῷ πλείους. Ὅταν δὲ προσίῃ τις ἄρρην, συστρέψας εἰς ταὐτὸ καὶ περιδραμὼν κύκλῳ, προσελθὼν μάχεται· κἄν τις κινῆται, δάκνει καὶ κωλύει. Ὁ δὲ ταῦρος, ὅταν ὥρα τῆς ὀχείας ᾖ, τότε γίνεται σύννομος καὶ μάχεται τοῖς ἄλλοις, τὸν δὲ πρότερον χρόνον μετ’ ἀλλήλων εἰσίν, ὃ καλεῖται ἀτιμαγελεῖν· πολλάκις γὰρ οἵ γ’ ἐν τῇ Ἠπείρῳ οὐ φαίνονται τριῶν μηνῶν. Ὅλως δὲ τὰ ἄγρια πάντα ἢ τὰ πλεῖστα οὐ συννέμονται τοῖς θήλεσι πρὸ τῆς ὥρας τοῦ ὀχεύειν, ἀλλ’ ἐκκρίνονται, ὅταν εἰς ἡλικίαν ἔλθωσι, καὶ χωρὶς βόσκονται τὰ ἄρρενα τῶν θηλειῶν. Καὶ αἱ ὕες δ’ ὅταν ἔχωσι πρὸς τὴν ὀχείαν ὁρμητικῶς, ὃ καλεῖται καπρᾶν, ὠθοῦνται καὶ πρὸς τοὺς ἀνθρώπους. Περὶ δὲ τὰς κύνας τὸ τοιοῦτον πάθος καλεῖται σκυζᾶν. Ἔπαρσις μὲν οὖν τοῖς θήλεσιν ἐγγίνεται τῶν αἰδοίων, ὅταν πρὸς τὴν ὀχείαν ὀργῶσι, καὶ ὑγρασία περὶ τὸν τόπον· αἱ δ’ ἵπποι καὶ ἀπορραίνουσι λευκὴν ὑγρότητα περὶ τὸν καιρὸν τοῦτον. Καθάρσεις δὲ γίνονται μὲν καταμηνίων, οὐ μὴν ὅσαι γε ταῖς γυναιξὶν οὐθενὶ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων. Τοῖς μὲν οὖν προβάτοις καὶ αἰξίν, ἐπειδὰν ὥρα ᾖ ὀχεύεσθαι, ἐπισημαίνει πρὸ τοῦ ὀχεύεσθαι· καὶ ἐπειδὰν ὀχευθῶσι, γίνεται τὰ σημεῖα, εἶτα διαλείπει, μέχρι οὗ ἂν μέλλωσι τίκτειν. Τότε δ’ ἐπισημαίνει, καὶ οὕτω γινώσκουσιν ὅτι ἐπίτοκοι οἱ ποιμένες. Ἐπειδὰν δὲ τέκῃ, κάθαρσις γίνεται πολλή, τὸ μὲν πρῶτον οὐ σφόδρα αἱματώδης, ὕστερον μέντοι σφόδρα. Βοῒ δὲ καὶ ὄνῳ καὶ ἵππῳ πλείω μὲν τούτων διὰ τὸ μέγεθος, ἐλάττω δὲ κατὰ λόγον πολλῷ. Ἡ μὲν οὖν βοῦς ὅταν ὀργᾷ πρὸς τὴν ὀχείαν ἡ θήλεια, καθαίρεται κάθαρσιν βραχεῖαν ὅσον ἡμικοτύλιον ἢ μικρῷ πλέον· καιρὸς δὲ γίνεται τῆς ὀχείας μάλιστα περὶ τὴν κάθαρσιν. Ἵππος δὲ τῶν τετραπόδων ἁπάντων εὐτοκώτατον καὶ λοχίων καθαρώτατον, καὶ ἐλαχίστην προΐεται αἵματος ῥύσιν, ὡς κατὰ τὸ τοῦ σώματος μέγεθος. Μάλιστα δὲ καὶ ταῖς βουσὶ καὶ ταῖς ἵπποις τὰ καταμήνια ἐπισημαίνει διαλείποντα δίμηνον καὶ τετράμηνον καὶ ἑξάμηνον· ἀλλ’ οὐ ῥᾴδιον γνῶναι μὴ παρεπομένῳ μηδὲ συνήθει σφόδρα, διὸ ἔνιοι οὐκ οἴονται γίνεσθαι αὐτοῖς. Τοῖς δ’ ὀρεῦσι τοῖς θήλεσιν οὐθὲν γίνεται καταμήνιον, ἀλλὰ τὸ οὖρον παχύτερον τὸ τῆς θηλείας. Ὅλως μὲν οὖν τὸ τῆς κύστεως περίττωμα τοῖς τετράποσι παχύτερον ἢ τὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων, τὸ δὲ τῶν προβάτων καὶ τῶν αἰγῶν τῶν θηλειῶν παχύτερον ἔτι ἢ τὸ τῶν ἀρρένων· ὄνου δὲ λεπτότερον τὸ τῶν θηλειῶν, βοὸς δὲ δριμύτερον τὸ τῆς θηλείας. Μετὰ δὲ τοὺς τόκους ἁπάντων τῶν τετραπόδων παχύτερον τὸ οὖρον γίνεται, καὶ μᾶλλον τῶν ἐλάττω προϊεμένων κάθαρσιν. Τὸ δὲ γάλα γίνεται, ὅταν ὀχεύεσθαι ἄρχωνται, πυοειδές· χρήσιμον δὲ γίνεται, ἐπειδὰν τέκωσιν ὕστερον. Κύοντα δὲ καὶ πρόβατα καὶ αἶγες πιότερα γίνονται καὶ ἐσθίουσι μᾶλλον· καὶ βόες δὲ ὡσαύτως καὶ τἆλλα τὰ τετράποδα πάντα. Ὁρμητικώτατα μὲν οὖν ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πᾶν εἰπεῖν πρὸς τὴν ὀχείαν τὴν ἐαρινὴν ὥραν ἐστίν· οὐ μὴν τὰ πάντα γε ποιεῖται τὸν αὐτὸν καιρὸν τῆς ὀχείας, ἀλλὰ πρὸς τὴν ἐκτροφὴν τῶν τέκνων ἐν τοῖς καθήκουσι καιροῖς. Αἱ μὲν οὖν ἥμεροι ὕες κύουσι τέτταρας μῆνας, τίκτουσι δὲ τὰ πλεῖστα εἴκοσιν· πλὴν ἂν πολλὰ τέκωσιν, οὐ δύνανται ἐκτρέφειν πάντα. Γηράσκουσαι δὲ τίκτουσι μὲν ὁμοίως, ὀχεύονται δὲ βραδύτερον· κυΐσκονται δ’ ἐκ μιᾶς ὀχείας, ἀλλὰ πολλάκις ἐπιβιβάσκουσι διὰ τὸ ἐκβάλλειν μετὰ τὴν ὀχείαν τὴν καλουμένην ὑπό τινων καπρίαν. Τοῦτο μὲν οὖν συμβαίνει πάσαις, ἔνιαι δ’ ἅμα τούτῳ καὶ τὸ σπέρμα προΐενται. Ἐν δὲ τῇ κυήσει ὃ ἂν βλαφθῇ τῶν τέκνων καὶ τῷ μεγέθει πηρωθῇ, καλεῖται μετάχοιρον· τοῦτο δὲ γίνεται ὅπου ἂν τύχῃ τῆς ὑστέρας. Ὅταν δὲ γεννήσῃ, τῷ πρώτῳ τὸν πρῶτον παρέχει μαστόν. Θυῶσαν δ’ οὐ δεῖ εὐθὺς βιβάζειν, πρὶν ἂν μὴ τὰ ὦτα καταβάλῃ· εἰ δὲ μή, ἀναθυᾷ πάλιν· ἂν δ’ ὀργῶσαν βιβάσῃ, μία ὀχεία, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, ἀρκεῖ. Συμφέρει δ’ ὀχεύοντι μὲν τῷ κάπρῳ παρέχειν κριθάς, τετοκυίᾳ δὲ τῇ ὑῒ κριθὰς ἑφθάς. Εἰσὶ δὲ τῶν ὑῶν αἱ μὲν εὐθὺς καλλίχοιροι μόνον, αἱ δ’ ἐπαυξανόμεναι τὰ τέκνα καὶ τὰς δέλφακας χρηστὰς γεννῶσιν. Φασὶ δέ τινες, ἐὰν τὸν ἕτερον ὀφθαλμὸν ἐκκοπῇ ἡ ὗς, ἀποθνήσκειν διὰ ταχέων ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ. Ζῶσι δ’ αἱ πλεῖσται μὲν περὶ ἔτη πεντεκαίδεκα, ἔνιαι δὲ καὶ τῶν εἴκοσιν ὀλίγον ἀπολείπουσιν.

About the other animals, then, both swimming and flying, and about those walking animals that lay eggs, nearly everything has been said, about all of them: about mating and gestation and the other matters of a like kind; about the walking animals that bear live young, and about man, we must state in the same way what happens. Mating has been discussed both separately and generally for all of them. Common to all animals is being excited above all by the desire and the pleasure that come from mating. Females are most savage when they have just given birth, and males around the time of mating. For stallions bite [other] horses, and throw and chase their riders; and wild boars are most savage, although they are at their weakest at this time, because of mating; and they fight astonishing battles with one another, arming themselves as with breastplates and making their hide as thick as possible by preparation, rubbing themselves against trees and smearing themselves with mud again and again and drying themselves off; and they fight one another, driving [each other] out of the swine herds, so fiercely that often both die. So too bulls, rams and he-goats: though they were previously grazing together, at the mating seasons each [kind] separates and fights one another. The male camel too is savage at mating time, whether a man or a camel comes near; with the horse, indeed, it is always at war in any case. It is the same with wild animals: bears, wolves and lions become savage towards those who come near them at this time, but they fight one another less, because none of these animals lives in herds. Female bears are also savage when they have cubs, as bitches are when they have puppies. Elephants also grow wild at mating time; that is why, they say, those who keep them in India do not let them mate with the females; for, becoming frenzied at these times, they overturn their houses, which are poorly built, and do much other damage. They say also that plentiful food makes them gentler; and by bringing other [elephants] up to them they punish and subdue them, ordering those brought up to beat them. Animals that mate often and not at a single season, such as those that live alongside man, pigs and dogs, are seen to behave like this less, because of the abundance of intercourse. Of females, the most eager for coupling is the mare, and next the cow. Mares go ‘horse-mad’ (hippomanein); hence their name, alone among the animals, is applied as a term of abuse for those who are unrestrained in sexual matters. They are also said to be impregnated by the wind at this time; that is why in Crete they do not take the stallions away from the mares. When this happens to them, they run away from the other horses. The condition is what in sows is called kaprizein [‘boar-heat’]. They run neither east nor west, but north or south. When the condition comes on, they let no one come near, until they either give out from exhaustion or reach the sea; and then they discharge something. This too they call hippomanes, as with [the growth on] the newborn; it is like the kapria [sow’s discharge], and the women who deal in sorcery seek it more than anything. Around the mating season [mares] put their heads together with one another more than before, and swish their tails often, and give out a voice different from that at other times; and there flows from their genitals [a fluid] like semen, but much thinner than the male’s; and some call this hippomanes, and not the growth on foals; they say it is hard to obtain, for it flows a little at a time. They also urinate often when they are in heat, and play with one another. So it is with horses. Cows go ‘bull-mad’; and they are so violently possessed by the condition that the cowherds cannot control them or catch hold of them. Both mares and cows show plainly when they are ripe for mating, by the swelling of the genitals, and the cows by urinating often, as the mares do. Cows, moreover, mount the bulls, and follow them about constantly, and stand beside them. The younger come into heat for mating earlier, both among horses and among cattle; and when there is fine weather and their bodies are in good condition, they are more in heat. Mares, when they are shorn [of their manes], rather lose their urge and become more downcast. Stallions recognise by smell the mares that pasture with them, even if they have been together only a few days before mating; and if [herds] become mixed together, they drive [the others] out by biting, and graze apart, each keeping their own [mares]. They give each [stallion] about thirty [mares] or a few more. When another male approaches, [the stallion] herds [his mares] into one place, runs round them in a circle, and goes up and fights; and if any [mare] moves, he bites her and stops her. The bull, when it is the mating season, then joins the herd and fights the others, while before that time [the bulls] are with one another, which is called ‘scorning the herd’ (atimagelein); for often those in Epirus are not seen for three months. In general, all or most wild animals do not graze with the females before the mating season, but separate off when they come of age, and the males feed apart from the females. Sows too, when they are eager for mating, which is called kapran [‘boar-heat’], push even against people. In bitches such a condition is called skyzan [‘being in heat’]. Swelling of the genitals occurs in females when they are ripe for mating, and moisture around the part; and mares also spurt out a white fluid at this time. Menstrual discharges do occur, but in none of the other animals as great as in women. In sheep and goats, when it is the season to be mated, signs appear before mating; and when they have been mated, the signs appear, then stop, until they are about to give birth. Then they appear again, and this is how the shepherds know that they are close to giving birth. When she has given birth, there is a copious discharge, at first not very bloody, but later very much so. In the cow, the ass and the mare [the discharges are] greater than in these because of their size, but much smaller in proportion. The cow, when she is ripe for mating, has a brief discharge of about half a kotylē [a small measure] or a little more; and the best time for mating is around the discharge. The mare, of all quadrupeds, foals most easily and is freest from discharge after birth, and lets out the least flow of blood relative to the size of her body. In both cows and mares the menses show most at intervals of two months, four months and six months; but this is not easy to tell for one who does not follow them about and is not very familiar [with them], and so some think that they do not occur in them. Female mules have no menses at all, but the female’s urine is thicker. In general, the residue from the bladder in quadrupeds is thicker than that of human beings, and that of female sheep and goats still thicker than that of the males; but in the ass the females’ is thinner, and in the ox the female’s is sharper. After giving birth, the urine of all quadrupeds becomes thicker, and more so in those that pass less discharge. When they begin to be mated, the milk becomes like pus; it becomes usable later, after they have given birth. When pregnant, sheep and goats become fatter and eat more; and cows likewise, and all the other quadrupeds. Generally speaking, they are most eager for mating in the spring season; not all, however, keep the same time for mating, but [each does so] at the times suited to rearing the young. Domestic sows are pregnant for four months and bear twenty at most; but if they bear many, they cannot rear them all. As they grow old they bear just as well, but are slower to be mated; they conceive from a single mating, but [people] put the boar to them several times, because after mating they discharge what some call kapria. This happens to all of them, and some emit the seed too along with it. Any of the young that is damaged during gestation and stunted in size is called a metachoiron [‘runt’]; this happens in whatever part of the womb it may be. When she has farrowed, she offers the first teat to the first-born. When [a sow] is in heat, one should not put the boar to her at once, before she lets her ears droop; otherwise she comes into heat again; but if one puts the boar to her when she is ripe, one mating, as has been said, is enough. It is good to give barley to the boar while he is mating, and boiled barley to the sow when she has farrowed. Some sows bear fine piglets only at first, while others, as they grow older, also produce good young and good shoats. Some say that if a sow has one eye knocked out, she generally dies soon after. Most live about fifteen years, and some fall only a little short of twenty.

Ἵππος δ’ ἄρχεται ὀχεύειν ὁ μὲν ἄρρην διέτης, καὶ ἡ θήλεια διέτης ὀχεύεσθαι· ταῦτα μέντοι ὀλίγα ἐστί, καὶ τὰ ἔκγονα τούτων ἐλάττω καὶ ἀσθενικώτερα· ὡς δ’ ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ ἄρχονται ὀχεύειν τριετεῖς ὄντες, καὶ αἱ ἵπποι ὀχεύεσθαι, καὶ ἐπιδιδόασι δ’ ἀεὶ πρὸς τὸ βελτίω τὰ ἔκγονα γίνεσθαι μέχρι ἐτῶν εἴκοσιν. Κύει δ’ ἕνδεκα μῆνας, δωδεκάτῳ δὲ τίκτει. Πληροῖ δ’ ὁ ἵππος οὐκ ἐν τεταγμέναις ἡμέραις, ἀλλ’ ἐνίοτε μὲν ἐν μιᾷ ἢ δυσὶν ἢ τρισίν, ἐνίοτε δ’ ἐν πλείοσιν· θᾶττον δὲ πληροῖ ἐπιβαίνων ὄνος ἢ ἵππος. Ἡ δ’ ὀχεία οὐκ ἐπίπονος τῶν ἵππων, ὥσπερ ἡ τῶν βοῶν. Λαγνίστατον δὲ καὶ τῶν θηλειῶν καὶ τῶν ἀρρένων μετ’ ἄνθρωπον ἵππος ἐστίν. Ἡ δὲ τῶν νεωτέρων ὀχεία γίνεται παρὰ τὴν ἡλικίαν, ὅταν εὐβοσία καὶ ἀφθονία γένηται τροφῆς. Ἔστι μὲν οὖν ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ μονοτόκος, τίκτει μέντοι ποτὲ καὶ δύο τὰ πλεῖστα. Καὶ ἡμιόνους δ’ ἤδη ἔτεκέ τις δύο· ἃ κρίνουσιν ἐν τέρασιν. Ὀχεύει μὲν οὖν ἵππος καὶ τριακοντάμηνος· ὥστε δὲ καὶ γεννᾶν ἀξίως, ὅταν παύσηται βάλλων. Ἤδη δέ τινες καὶ βάλλοντες ἐπλήρωσαν, ὡς φασίν, ἂν μὴ φύσει ἄγονοι τυγχάνωσιν ὄντες. Ἔχει μὲν οὖν ὀδόντας τετταράκοντα, βάλλει δὲ τοὺς μὲν πρώτους τέτταρας τριακοντάμηνος, τοὺς μὲν δύο ἄνωθεν τοὺς δὲ δύο κάτωθεν· ἐπειδὰν δὲ γένηται ἐνιαυτός, βάλλει τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον τέτταρας, δύο μὲν ἄνωθεν δύο δὲ κάτωθεν, καὶ πάλιν ὅταν ἄλλος ἐνιαυτὸς γένηται, ἑτέρους τέτταρας τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον· τεττάρων δ’ ἐτῶν παρελθόντων καὶ ἓξ μηνῶν οὐκέτι βάλλει οὐδένα. Ἤδη δέ τις τὸ πρῶτον εὐθὺς ἅμα πάντας ἐξέβαλε, καὶ ἄλλος ἅμα τοῖς τελευταίοις ἅπαντας· ἀλλὰ τὰ τοιαῦτα γίνεται ὀλίγάκις. Ὥστε σχεδὸν συμβαίνει, ὅταν τεττάρων ἐτῶν ᾖ καὶ ἓξ μηνῶν, χρήσιμον εἶναι πρὸς τὴν γέννησιν μάλιστα. Εἰσὶ δ’ οἱ πρεσβύτεροι τῶν ἵππων γονιμώτεροι, καὶ οἱ ἄρρενες τῶν ἀρρένων καὶ αἱ θήλειαι τῶν θηλειῶν. Ἀναβαίνουσι δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τὰς μητέρας οἱ ἵπποι καὶ ἐπὶ τὰς θυγατέρας· καὶ τότε δοκεῖ τέλεον εἶναι τὸ ἱπποφόρβιον, ὅταν ὀχεύωσι τὰ ἑαυτῶν ἔκγονα. Οἱ δὲ Σκύθαι ἱππεύουσι ταῖς κυούσαις ἵπποις, ὅταν θᾶττον στραφῇ τὸ ἔμβρυον, καὶ φασὶ γίνεσθαι αὐτὰς εὐτοκωτέρας. Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἄλλα τετράποδα κατακείμενα τίκτει, διὸ καὶ πλάγια προέρχεται τὰ ἔμβρυα πάντων· ἡ δ’ ἵππος ἡ θήλεια ὅταν ἤδη πλησίον ᾖ τῆς ἀφέσεως, ὀρθὴ στᾶσα προΐεται τὸ ἔκγονον. Ζῶσι δὲ τῶν ἵππων οἱ μὲν πλεῖστοι περὶ ὀκτωκαίδεκα ἔτη καὶ εἴκοσιν, ἔνιοι δὲ πεντεκαιείκοσι καὶ τριάκοντα· ἐὰν δέ τις ἐπιμελῶς θεραπεύῃ, ἐκτείνει καὶ πρὸς τὰ πεντήκοντα. Ὁ δὲ μακρότατος βίος τῶν πλείστων ἐστὶν ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ τριακοντέτης· ἡ δὲ θήλεια ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ μὲν πέντε καὶ εἴκοσιν ἔτη, ἤδη δέ τινες καὶ τετταράκοντα ἔτη βεβιώκασιν. Ἐλάττω δὲ χρόνον βιοῦσιν οἱ ἄρρενες τῶν θηλειῶν διὰ τὰς ὀχείας, καὶ οἱ ἰδίᾳ τρεφόμενοι τῶν ἐν τοῖς ἱπποφορβίοις. Ἡ μὲν οὖν θήλεια πέντ’ ἐτῶν τέλος λαμβάνει μήκους καὶ ὕψους, ὁ δ’ ἄρρην ἓξ ἐτῶν· μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα ἐν ἄλλοις ἓξ ἔτεσι τὸ πλῆθος λαμβάνει τοῦ σώματος, καὶ ἐπιδίδωσι μέχρι ἐτῶν εἴκοσιν. Ἀποτελειοῦται δὲ τὰ θήλεα τῶν ἀρρένων ἔμπροσθεν, ἐν δὲ τῇ γαστρὶ τὰ ἄρρενα τῶν θηλειῶν, καθάπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων· ταὐτὸ δὲ τοῦτο συμβαίνει καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ὅσα πλείω τίκτει. Θηλάζειν δέ φασι τὸν μὲν ἡμίονον ἑξάμηνον, εἶτ’ οὐκέτι προσίεσθαι διὰ τὸ σπᾶσθαι καὶ πονεῖν· τὸν δ’ ἵππον πλείω χρόνον. Ἀκμάζει δὲ καὶ ἵππος καὶ ἡμίονος μετὰ τοὺς βόλους· ὅταν δὲ πάντας ὦσι βεβληκότες, οὐ ῥᾴδιον γνῶναι τὴν ἡλικίαν. Διὸ καὶ λέγουσι γνώμην ἔχειν, ὅταν ἄβολος ᾖ· ὅταν δὲ βεβληκώς, οὐκ ἔχειν. Ὅμως δὲ μάλιστα γνωρίζεται ἡ ἡλικία μετὰ τοὺς βόλους τῷ κυνόδοντι· τῶν μὲν γὰρ ἱππαστῶν γίνεται μικρὸς διὰ τὴν τρίψιν (κατὰ τοῦτον γὰρ ἐμβάλλεται ὁ χαλινός), τῶν δὲ μὴ ἱππαστῶν μέγας μὲν ἀλλ’ ἀπηρτημένος, τῶν δὲ νέων ὀξὺς καὶ μικρός. Ὀχεύει δ’ ὁ μὲν ἄρρην πᾶσάν τε ὥραν καὶ ἕως ζῇ· καὶ ἡ θήλεια δ’ ὀχεύεται ἕως ἂν ζῇ, οὔπω δὲ πᾶσαν ὥραν, ἐὰν μή τις δεσμὸν ἢ ἄλλην τινὰ προσενέγκῃ ἀνάγκην· ὥρα δ’ οὐκ ἀφαιρεῖται οὐδεμία τεταγμένη τοῦ ὀχεύεσθαι καὶ ὀχεύειν. Οὐ μέντοι γε ὅτ’ ἔτυχε γενομένης τῆς ὀχείας δύνανται ἃ ἂν γεννήσωσιν ἐκτρέφειν. Ἐν Ὀποῦντι δ’ ἐν ἱπποφορβίῳ ἵππος ἐγένετο ὃς ὤχευεν ἐτῶν ὢν τετταράκοντα· ἔδει δὲ τὰ πρόσθια σκέλη συνεπαίρειν. Ἄρχονται δ’ ὀχεύεσθαι αἱ ἵπποι τοῦ ἔαρος. Ὅταν δὲ τέκῃ ἡ ἵππος, οὐκ εὐθὺς μετὰ τοῦτο πίμπλαται ἀλλὰ διαλείπει χρόνον, καὶ τίκτει ἀμείνω τετάρτῳ ἢ πέμπτῳ ἔτει μετὰ τὸν τόκον. Ἔνα δ’ ἐνιαυτὸν καὶ πάμπαν ἀνάγκη διαλείπειν καὶ ποιεῖν ὥσπερ νειόν. Ἵππος μὲν οὖν διαλείπουσα τίκτει, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, ὄνος δὲ συνεχῶς. Γίνονται δὲ τῶν ἵππων αἱ μὲν καὶ ἄτεκνοι ὅλως, αἱ δὲ συλλαμβάνουσι μέν, οὐ δύνανται δ’ ἐκφέρειν· σημεῖον δὲ τῶν τοιούτων λέγουσιν εἶναι, τὸ ἔμβρυον ἀνασχιζόμενον ἔχειν ἄλλα νεφροειδῆ περὶ τοὺς νεφρούς, ὥστε δοκεῖν τέτταρας ἔχειν νεφρούς. Ὅταν δὲ τέκῃ ἡ ἵππος, τό τε χόριον εὐθὺς κατεσθίει, καὶ ἀπεσθίει τοῦ πώλου ὃ ἐπιφύεται ἐπὶ τοῦ μετώπου τῶν πώλων, καλεῖται δὲ ἱππομανές· ἔστι δὲ τὸ μέγεθος ἔλαττον μικρῷ ἰσχάδος, τὴν δ’ ἰδέαν πλατύ, περιφερές, μέλαν. Τοῦτο ἐάν τις φθῇ λαβὼν καὶ ὄσφρηται ἡ ἵππος, ἐξίσταται καὶ μαίνεται πρὸς τὴν ὀσμήν· διὸ καὶ τοῦτο αἱ φαρμακίδες ζητοῦσι καὶ συλλέγουσιν. Ἐὰν δ’ ὠχευμένην ἵππον ὑπὸ ἵππου ὄνος ὀχεύσῃ, διαφθείρει τὸ ἔμβρυον τὸ ἐνυπάρχον. Ἵππων δ’ ἡγεμόνα οὐ καθιστᾶσιν οἱ ἱπποφορβοὶ ὥσπερ βοῶν, διὰ τὸ μὴ μόνιμον εἶναι τὴν φύσιν αὐτῶν ἀλλ’ ὀξεῖαν καὶ εὐκίνητον.

The horse begins to mate, the male at two years old, and the female begins to be mated at two years old; such cases, however, are few, and their offspring are smaller and weaker. For the most part they begin to mate at three years old, and the mares to be mated; and they go on improving, so that their offspring become better, up to twenty years. The mare is pregnant for eleven months and gives birth in the twelfth. The stallion does not impregnate in a fixed number of days, but sometimes in one or two or three, sometimes in more; and an ass covering [a mare] impregnates more quickly than a horse does. The mating of horses is not laborious, as that of cattle is. After man, the horse is the most lustful [animal], both female and male. Mating among younger horses, out of keeping with their age, happens when there is good pasture and an abundance of food. The mare, then, generally bears one, but sometimes bears two at most. And one has even been known to bear two mules; these are reckoned among prodigies. The horse mates even at thirty months; but to beget worthy offspring, [only] when it has stopped shedding [its teeth]. Some, however, have impregnated even while shedding, so they say, if they do not happen to be naturally infertile. It has forty teeth, and sheds the first four at thirty months, two from above and two from below; when a year has passed it sheds four in the same way, two above and two below; and again when another year has passed, another four in the same way; when four years and six months have passed it no longer sheds any. One horse has been known to shed all of them at once right at the first [shedding], and another all of them together with the last; but such things happen rarely. So it turns out, roughly, that when it is four years and six months old it is most useful for breeding. Older horses are more fertile [than younger], males than males and females than females. Stallions also mount their mothers and their daughters; and a herd is thought to be complete when they mate with their own offspring. The Scythians ride pregnant mares once the foetus has turned early, and they say these then foal more easily. Other quadrupeds give birth lying down, and so the young of all of them come out sideways; but the mare, when she is already near delivery, stands upright and lets the foal out. Most horses live about eighteen or twenty years, some twenty-five or thirty; and if one cares for them attentively, life extends even to fifty. The longest life for most is, as a rule, thirty years; the female generally lives twenty-five years, though some have even lived forty years. Males live a shorter time than females because of mating, and those reared on their own [a shorter time] than those in herds. The female reaches her full length and height at five years, the male at six; after this, in another six years, it gains bulk of body, and goes on growing until twenty years. Females are fully formed sooner than males, but in the womb males sooner than females, just as with human beings; and this same thing happens also with the other animals that bear more than one young. They say the mule foal sucks for six months, and then [its dam] no longer lets it come to her, because she is tugged at and hurt; but the horse foal [sucks] for a longer time. Both horse and mule are in their prime after the sheddings; and when they have shed all [their teeth], it is not easy to tell their age. That is why they say [a horse] ‘has its mark’ when it has not yet shed, but ‘has none’ when it has shed. Nevertheless, after the sheddings the age is best recognised by the canine tooth: in horses that are ridden it becomes small through rubbing (for the bit is put in against it), in those not ridden it is large but standing apart, and in young ones sharp and small. The male mates at every season and as long as he lives; and the female is mated as long as she lives, but not at every season, unless someone applies a halter or some other compulsion; yet no fixed season is ruled out for being mated and mating. However, if mating takes place at any chance time, they cannot rear what they produce. At Opus, in a herd, there was a stallion that mated at forty years old; but his forelegs had to be lifted up for him. Mares begin to be mated in spring. When the mare has foaled, she is not impregnated straight after, but leaves an interval, and she bears better [offspring] in the fourth or fifth year after the foaling. It is absolutely necessary to leave an interval of one year, and treat her like fallow land. The mare, then, bears at intervals, as has been said, but the she-ass continuously. Some mares are wholly barren; others conceive but cannot carry to term; and they say a sign of such mares is that the foetus, when cut open, has other kidney-like bodies around the kidneys, so that it seems to have four kidneys. When the mare has foaled, she immediately eats up the afterbirth, and bites off from the foal what grows on the forehead of foals, which is called hippomanes [‘horse-madness’]; in size it is a little smaller than a dried fig, and in form flat, round and black. If someone gets hold of it first and the mare smells it, she goes out of her mind and becomes frenzied at the smell; that is why sorceresses seek it out and collect it. If an ass mates with a mare that has been covered by a stallion, he destroys the foetus that is in her. Horse-herders do not appoint a leader for horses, as [herdsmen do] for cattle, because their nature is not steady but quick and excitable.

Τῶν δ’ ἵππων αἱ μὲν φορβάδες ἄνοσοι τῶν ἄλλων ἀρρωστημάτων εἰσὶ πλὴν ποδάγρας, ταύτην δὲ κάμνουσι, καὶ ἐνίοτε ἀποβάλλουσι τὰς ὁπλάς· ὅταν δ’ ἀποβάλωσι, πάλιν φύουσιν εὐθύς· γίνεται γὰρ ἅμα τῆς ἑτέρας ὑποφυομένης ἡ τῆς ἑτέρας ὁπλῆς ἀποβολή. Σημεῖον δὲ τῆς ἀρρωστίας· ὁ γὰρ ὄρχις ἅλλεται ὁ δεξιός, ἢ κατὰ μέσον ὀλίγον κάτωθεν τῶν μυκτήρων ἔγκοιλον γίνεται καὶ ῥυτιδῶδες. Οἱ δὲ τροφίαι ἵπποι πλείστοις ἀρρωστήμασι κάμνουσιν. Λαμβάνει γὰρ καὶ εἰλεός· σημεῖον δὲ τῆς ἀρρωστίας τὰ ὀπίσθια σκέλη ἐφέλκουσιν ἐπὶ τὰ ἐμπρόσθια καὶ ὑποφέρουσιν, ὥστε ὀλίγου συγκρούειν. Ἐὰν δ’ ἀσιτήσας τὰς ἔμπροσθεν ἡμέρας εἶτα μανῇ, αἷμα ἀφαιροῦντες βοηθοῦσι καὶ ἐκτέμνοντες. Λαμβάνει δὲ καὶ τέτανος· σημεῖον δ’ αἱ φλέβες τέτανται πᾶσαι καὶ κεφαλὴ καὶ αὐχήν, καὶ προβαίνει εὐθέσι τοῖς σκέλεσιν. Γίγνονται δὲ καὶ ἔμπυοι οἱ ἵπποι. Λαμβάνει δὲ καὶ ἄλλος αὐτοὺς πόνος, καλεῖται δὲ τοῦτο κριθιᾶν· σημεῖον δὲ τοῦ ἀρρωστήματος μαλακὸς γίνεται ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ θερμὸν πνεῖ. Ἀνίατα δέ, ἐὰν μὴ αὐτόματα καταστῇ. Τό τε νυμφιᾶν καλούμενον, ἐν ᾧ συμβαίνει κατέχεσθαι ὅταν αὐλῇ τις, καὶ κατωπιᾶν· καὶ ὅταν ἀναβῇ τις, τροχάζει, ἕως ἂν μέλλῃ κατά τινας θεῖν· κατηφεῖ δ’ ἀεί, κἂν λυττήσῃ. Σημεῖον δὲ καὶ τούτου τὰ ὦτα καταβάλλει πρὸς τὴν χαίτην καὶ πάλιν προτείνει, καὶ ἐκλείπει, καὶ πνεῖ. Ἀνίατα δὲ καὶ τάδε, ἐὰν καρδίαν ἀλγήσῃ (σημεῖον δὲ λαπαρὸς ὢν ἀλγεῖ), καὶ ἐὰν ἡ κύστις μεταστῇ (σημεῖον δὲ καὶ τούτου τὸ μὴ δύνασθαι οὐρεῖν, καὶ τὰς ὁπλὰς καὶ τὰ ἰσχία ἐφέλκει). Καὶ ἐὰν σταφύλινον περιχάνῃ· τοῦτο δ’ ἐστὶν ἡλίκον σφονδύλη. Τὰ δὲ δήγματα τῆς μυγαλῆς καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ὑποζυγίοις χαλεπά· γίνονται δὲ φλύκταιναι. Χαλεπώτερον δὲ τὸ δῆγμα, ἐὰν κύουσα δάκῃ· ἐκρήγνυνται γὰρ αἱ φλύκταιναι, εἰ δὲ μή, οὔ. Ἀποκτείνει δὲ δάκνουσα ἢ σφόδρα ποιεῖ ἀλγεῖν καὶ ἡ καλουμένη χαλκὶς ὑπὸ τινῶν, ὑπὸ δ’ ἐνίων ζιγνίς· ἔστι δ’ ὅμοιον ταῖς μικραῖς σαύραις, τὸ δὲ χρῶμα τοῖς τυφλίνοις ὄφεσιν. Ὅλως δέ φασιν οἱ ἔμπειροι, σχεδὸν ὅσαπερ ἀρρωστεῖ ἄνθρωπος ἀρρωστήματα, καὶ ἵππον ἀρρωστεῖν καὶ πρόβατον. Ὑπὸ φαρμάκου δὲ διαφθείρεται καὶ ἵππος καὶ πᾶν ὑποζύγιον σανδαράκης· δίδοται δ’ ἐν ὕδατι καὶ διηθεῖται. Καὶ ἐκβάλλει δὲ κύουσα ἵππος ὀσμὴν λύχνου ἀποσβεννυμένου· συμβαίνει δὲ τοῦτο καὶ γυναιξὶν ἐνίαις κυούσαις. Περὶ μὲν οὖν τὰς νόσους τῶν ἵππων τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον, τὸ δ’ ἱππομανὲς καλούμενον ἐπιφύεται μέν, ὥσπερ λέγεται, τοῖς πώλοις, αἱ δ’ ἵπποι περιλείχουσαι καὶ καθαίρουσαι ἀποτρώγουσιν αὐτό· τὰ δ’ ἐπιμυθευόμενα πέπλασται μᾶλλον ὑπὸ γυναικῶν καὶ τῶν περὶ τὰς ἐπῳδάς. Ὁμολογουμένως δὲ καὶ τὸ καλούμενον πώλιον αἱ ἵπποι προεκβάλλουσι πρὸ τοῦ πώλου. Γινώσκουσι δ’ οἱ ἵπποι καὶ τὴν φωνὴν ἀκούοντες τῶν ἵππων, οἷς ἂν μαχεσάμενοι τύχωσιν. Χαίρουσι δ’ οἱ ἵπποι τοῖς λειμῶσι καὶ τοῖς ἕλεσιν· καὶ γὰρ τῶν ὑδάτων τὰ θολερὰ πίνουσι, κἂν ᾖ καθαρά, ἀνατρέπουσιν αὐτὰ οι ἵπποι ταῖς ὁπλαῖς, εἶτα πιοῦσαι λούονται. Καὶ γὰρ ὅλως ἐστὶ φιλόλουτρον τὸ ζῷον καὶ φίλυδρον· διὸ καὶ ἡ τοῦ ποταμίου ἵππου φύσις οὕτω συνέστηκεν. Ὁ δὲ βοῦς τοὐναντίον τοῦ ἵππου· ἂν γὰρ μὴ καθαρὸν ᾖ τὸ ὕδωρ καὶ ψυχρὸν καὶ ἀκέραιον, οὐκ ἐθέλει πιεῖν.

Of horses, those at pasture are free from other ailments except foot-gout; this they do suffer from, and sometimes they cast their hooves; and when they cast them, they grow them again at once, for the casting of one hoof happens at the same time as the other grows in beneath. A sign of the ailment: the right testicle twitches, or a little below the nostrils, in the middle, a hollow forms and [the skin] becomes wrinkled. Stall-fed horses suffer from very many ailments. For colic also seizes them; a sign of the ailment: they draw the hind legs up towards the forelegs and bring them underneath, so that they almost knock together. If, after refusing food for the preceding days, [the horse] then goes mad, they treat it by drawing blood and by castrating. Tetanus also seizes it; the sign: all the veins are tense, and the head and neck, and it walks with its legs straight. Horses also develop abscesses. Another affliction also seizes them, called ‘barley-sickness’ (krithian); the sign of the ailment: the palate becomes soft and the breath hot. These are incurable unless they settle of their own accord. And [there is] what is called ‘nymph-frenzy’ (nymphian), in which it happens that [the horse] becomes spellbound when someone plays the pipe, and hangs its head; and when someone mounts, it trots until it is about to run at someone; it is always downcast, even if it goes mad. A sign of this too: it lays its ears back to the mane and then stretches them forward again, and it faints and pants. These too are incurable: if it has pain in the heart (the sign: it is in pain, drawn in at the flanks), and if the bladder is displaced (the sign of this too: it cannot urinate, and it drags its hooves and haunches). And if it gulps down a staphylinos [an insect]; this is about the size of a sphondylē [a beetle]. The bites of the shrew are dangerous to the other draught animals too; blisters form. The bite is more dangerous if [the shrew] bites when pregnant; for then the blisters burst, otherwise not. The [creature] called chalkis by some and zignis by others also kills by its bite, or causes great pain; it is like the small lizards, and in colour like the blind snakes. In general the experienced say that a horse, and a sheep too, suffers from nearly all the ailments a human being suffers from. The horse, and every draught animal, is killed by the drug realgar; it is given in water and strained. A pregnant mare also miscarries at the smell of a lamp being put out; this happens to some pregnant women too. So much for the diseases of horses. The so-called hippomanes does grow on foals, as is said, and the mares, licking them all over and cleaning them, bite it off; but the tales told in addition about it have been made up, rather, by women and by those who deal in incantations. It is agreed too that mares expel the so-called pōlion [‘little foal’] before the foal. Horses also recognise, on hearing it, the voice of horses they have fought with. Horses delight in meadows and marshes; for they drink muddy water, and if it is clean, horses stir it up with their hooves, and then, having drunk, they bathe. For in general the animal is fond of bathing and fond of water; that is why the nature of the river horse is also constituted as it is. The ox is the opposite of the horse: unless the water is clean and cold and pure, it will not drink.

Πόλεμος μὲν οὖν πρὸς ἄλληλα τοῖς ζῴοις ἐστίν, ὅσα τοὺς αὐτούς τε κατέχει τόπους καὶ ἀπὸ τῶν αὐτῶν ποιεῖται τὴν ζωήν· ἐὰν γὰρ ᾖ σπάνιος ἡ τροφή, καὶ πρὸς ἄλληλα τὰ ὁμόφυλα μάχεται, ἐπεὶ καὶ τὰς φώκας φασὶ πολεμεῖν τὰς περὶ τὸν αὐτὸν τόπον, καὶ ἄρρενι ἄρρενα καὶ θηλείᾳ θήλειαν, ἕως ἂν ἀποκτείνῃ ἢ ἐκβληθῇ θάτερον ὑπὸ θατέρου· καὶ τὰ σκυμνία ὡσαύτως πάντα. Ἔτι δὲ τοῖς ὠμοφάγοις ἅπαντα πολεμεῖ, καὶ ταῦτα τοῖς ἄλλοις· ἀπὸ γὰρ τῶν ζῴων ἡ τροφὴ αὐτοῖς· ὅθεν καὶ τὰς διεδρίας καὶ τὰς συνεδρίας οἱ μάντεις λαμβάνουσι, δίεδρα μὲν τὰ πολέμια τιθέντες, σύνεδρα δὲ τὰ εἰρηνοῦντα πρὸς ἄλληλα. Κινδυνεύει δέ, εἰ ἀφθονία τροφῆς εἴη, πρός τε τοὺς ἀνθρώπους ἂν ἔχειν τιθασσῶς τὰ νῦν φοβούμενα αὐτῶν καὶ ἀγριαίνοντα, καὶ πρὸς ἄλληλα τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον. Δῆλον δὲ ποιεῖ τοῦτο ἡ περὶ Αἴγυπτον ἐπιμέλεια τῶν ζῴων· διὰ γὰρ τὸ τροφὴν ὑπάρχειν καὶ μὴ ἀπορεῖν μετ’ ἀλλήλων ζῶσι καὶ αὐτὰ τὰ ἀγριώτατα· διὰ τὰς ὠφελείας γὰρ ἡμεροῦται, οἷον ἐνιαχοῦ τὸ τῶν κροκοδείλων γένος πρὸς τὸν ἱερέα διὰ τὴν ἐπιμέλειαν τὴν τῆς τροφῆς. Τὸ δ’ αὐτὸ τοῦτ’ ἔστιν ἰδεῖν καὶ περὶ τὰς ἄλλας χώρας γινόμενον, καὶ κατὰ μόρια τούτων. Ἔστι δ’ ἀετὸς καὶ δράκων πολέμια· τροφὴν γὰρ ποιεῖται τοὺς ὄφεις ὁ ἀετός. Καὶ ἰχνεύμων καὶ φάλαγξ· θηρεύει γὰρ τοὺς φάλαγγας ὁ ἰχνεύμων. Τῶν δ’ ὀρνίθων ποικιλίδες καὶ κορυδῶνες καὶ πίπρα καὶ χλωρεύς· τὰ γὰρ ᾠὰ κατεσθίουσιν ἀλλήλων. Καὶ κορώνη καὶ γλαύξ· ἡ μὲν γὰρ τῆς μεσημβρίας, διὰ τὸ μὴ ὀξὺ βλέπειν τὴν γλαῦκα τῆς ἡμέρας, κατεσθίει ὑφαρπάζουσα αὐτῆς τὰ ᾠά, ἡ δὲ γλαὺξ τῆς νυκτὸς τὰ τῆς κορώνης, καὶ κρείττων ἡ μὲν τῆς ἡμέρας ἡ δὲ τῆς νυκτός ἐστιν. Καὶ γλαὺξ δὲ καὶ ὄρχιλος πολέμια· τὰ γὰρ ᾠὰ κατεσθίει καὶ οὗτος τῆς γλαυκός. Τῆς δὲ ἡμέρας καὶ τὰ ἄλλα ὀρνίθια τὴν γλαῦκα περιπέταται, ὃ καλεῖται θαυμάζειν, καὶ προσπετόμενα τίλλουσιν· διὸ οἱ ὀρνιθοθῆραι θηρεύουσιν αὐτῇ παντοδαπὰ ὀρνίθια. Πολέμιος δὲ καὶ ὁ πρέσβυς καλούμενος καὶ γαλῆ καὶ κορώνη· τὰ γὰρ ᾠὰ καὶ τοὺς νεοττοὺς κατεσθίουσιν αὐτῆς. Καὶ τρυγὼν καὶ πυραλλίς· τόπος γὰρ τῆς νομῆς καὶ βίος ὁ αὐτός. Καὶ κελεὸς καὶ λιβυός. Ἰκτῖνος δὲ καὶ κόραξ· ὑφαιρεῖται γὰρ τοῦ κόρακος ὁ ἰκτῖνος ὅ τι ἂν ἔχῃ διὰ τὸ κρείττων εἶναι τοῖς ὄνυξι καὶ τῇ πτήσει, ὥστε ἡ τροφὴ ποιεῖ πολεμίους καὶ τούτους. Ἔτι οἱ ἀπὸ τῆς θαλάττης ζῶντες ἀλλήλοις, οἷον βρένθος καὶ λάρος καὶ ἅρπη. Τριόρχης δὲ καὶ φρῦνος καὶ ὄφις· κατεσθίει γὰρ ὁ τριόρχης αὐτούς. Τρυγὼν δὲ καὶ χλωρεύς· ἀποκτείνει γὰρ τὴν τρυγόνα ὁ χλωρεύς, καὶ ἡ κορώνη τὸν καλούμενον τύπανον. Τὸν δὲ κάλαριν ὁ αἰγωλιὸς καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι γαμψώνυχες κατεσθίουσιν· ὅθεν ὁ πόλεμος αὐτοῖς. Πόλεμος δὲ καὶ ἀσκαλαβώτῃ καὶ ἀράχνῃ· κατεσθίει γὰρ τοὺς ἀράχνας ὁ ἀσκαλαβώτης. Πίπῳ δὲ καὶ ἐρωδιῷ· τὰ γὰρ ᾠὰ κατεσθίει καὶ τοὺς νεοττοὺς τοῦ ἐρωδιοῦ. Αἰγίθῳ δὲ καὶ ὄνῳ πόλεμος διὰ τὸ παριόντα τὸν ὄνον κνήθεσθαι εἰς τὰς ἀκάνθας τὰ ἕλκη· διά τε οὖν τοῦτο, κἂν ὀγκήσηται, ἐκβάλλει τὰ ᾠὰ καὶ τοὺς νεοττούς· φοβούμενοι γὰρ ἐκπίπτουσιν· ὁ δὲ διὰ τὴν βλάβην ταύτην κολάπτει ἐπιπετόμενος τὰ ἕλκη αὐτοῦ. Λύκος δ’ ὄνῳ καὶ ταύρῳ καὶ ἀλώπεκι πολέμιος· ὠμοφάγος γὰρ ὢν ἐπιτίθεται τοῖς βουσὶ καὶ τοῖς ὄνοις καὶ τῇ ἀλώπεκι. Καὶ ἀλώπηξ δὲ καὶ κίρκος διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν· γαμψώνυχος γὰρ ὢν καὶ ὠμοφάγος ἐπιτίθεται καὶ ἕλκη ποιεῖ κόπτων. Καὶ κόραξ ταύρῳ καὶ ὄνῳ πολέμιος διὰ τὸ τύπτειν ἐπιπετόμενος αὐτοὺς καὶ τὰ ὄμματα κολάπτειν αὐτῶν. Πολεμεῖ δὲ καὶ ἀετὸς καὶ ἐρωδιός· γαμψώνυχος γὰρ ὢν ὁ ἀετὸς ἐπιτίθεται, ὁ δ’ ἀποθνήσκει ἀμυνόμενος. Καὶ αἰσάλων δ’ αἰγυπιῷ πολέμιος, καὶ κρὲξ ἐλεῷ καὶ κοττύφῳ καὶ χλωρίωνι, ὃν ἔνιοι μυθολογοῦσι γενέσθαι ἐκ πυρκαϊᾶς· καὶ γὰρ αὐτοὺς βλάπτει καὶ τὰ τέκνα αὐτῶν. Καὶ σίττη καὶ τροχίλος ἀετῷ πολέμια· ἡ γὰρ σίττη καταγνύει τὰ ᾠὰ τοῦ ἀετοῦ, ὁ δ’ ἀετὸς καὶ διὰ τοῦτο καὶ διὰ τὸ ὠμοφάγος εἶναι πολέμιός ἐστι πᾶσιν. Ἄνθος δ’ ἵππῳ πολέμιος· ἐξελαύνει γὰρ ὁ ἵππος ἐκ τῆς νομῆς· πόαν γὰρ νέμεται ὁ ἄνθος, ἐπάργεμος δ’ ἐστὶ καὶ οὐκ ὀξυωπός· μιμεῖται γὰρ τοῦ ἵππου τὴν φωνήν, καὶ φοβεῖ ἐπιπετόμενος καὶ ἐξελαύνει, ὅταν δὲ λάβῃ, κτείνει αὐτόν. Οἰκεῖ δ’ ὁ ἄνθος παρὰ ποταμὸν καὶ ἕλη, χρόαν δ’ ἔχει καλὴν καὶ εὐβίοτος. Κωλωτῇ δ’ ὄνος πολέμιος· κοιμᾶται γὰρ ἐν τῇ φάτνῃ αὐτοῦ, καὶ κωλύει ἐσθίειν εἰς τοὺς μυκτῆρας ἐνδυόμενος. Τῶν δ’ ἐρωδιῶν ἐστὶ τρία γένη, ὅ τε πέλλος καὶ ὁ λευκὸς καὶ ὁ ἀστερίας καλούμενος. Τούτων ὁ πέλλος χαλεπῶς εὐνάζεται καὶ ὀχεύει· κράζει τε γὰρ καὶ αἷμα, ὡς φασίν, ἀφίησιν ἐκ τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν ὀχεύων, καὶ τίκτει φαύλως καὶ ὀδυνηρῶς. Πολεμεῖ δὲ τοῖς βλάπτουσιν, ἀετῷ (ἁρπάζει γὰρ αὐτόν) καὶ ἀλώπεκι (φθείρει γὰρ αὐτὸν τῆς νυκτός) καὶ κορύδῳ (τὰ γὰρ ᾠὰ αὐτοῦ κλέπτει). Ὄφις δὲ γαλῇ καὶ ὑῒ πολέμιον, τῇ μὲν γαλῇ, κατ’ οἰκίαν ὅταν ὦσιν ἀμφότερα· ἀπὸ γὰρ τῶν αὐτῶν ζῶσιν· ἡ δ’ ὗς ἐσθίει τοὺς ὄφεις. Καὶ αἰσάλων ἀλώπεκι πολέμιος· τύπτει γὰρ καὶ τίλλει αὐτήν, καὶ τὰ τέκνα ἀποκτείνει· γαμψώνυχος γάρ ἐστιν. Κόραξ δὲ καὶ ἀλώπηξ ἀλλήλοις φίλοι· πολεμεῖ γὰρ τῷ αἰσάλωνι ὁ κόραξ· διὸ βοηθεῖ τυπτομένῃ αὐτῇ. Καὶ αἰγυπιὸς δὲ καὶ αἰσάλων πολέμιοι σφίσιν αὐτοῖς· ἀμφότεροι γὰρ γαμψώνυχοι. Μάχεται δὲ καὶ ἀετῷ αἰγυπιὸς καὶ κύκνος· κρατεῖ δ’ ὁ κύκνος πολλάκις· εἰσὶ δ’ οἱ κύκνοι καὶ ἀλληλοφάγοι μάλιστα τῶν ὀρνέων. Ἔστι δὲ τῶν θηρίων τὰ μὲν ἀεὶ πολέμια ἀλλήλοις, τὰ δ’ ὥσπερ ἄνθρωποι, ὅταν τύχωσιν. Ὄνος δὲ καὶ ἀκανθίδες πολέμιοι· αἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀπὸ τῶν ἀκανθῶν βιοτεύουσιν, ὁ δ’ ἁπαλὰς οὔσας κατεσθίει τὰς ἀκάνθας. Καὶ ἄνθος καὶ ἀκανθὶς καὶ αἴγιθος· λέγεται δ’ ὅτι αἰγίθου καὶ ἄνθου αἷμα οὐ συμμίγνυται ἀλλήλοις. Κορώνη δὲ καὶ ἐρωδιὸς φίλοι, καὶ σχοινίων καὶ κόρυδος, καὶ λαεδὸς καὶ κελεός· ὁ μὲν γὰρ κελεὸς παρὰ ποταμὸν οἰκεῖ καὶ λόχμας, ὁ δὲ λαεδὸς πέτρας καὶ ὄρη, καὶ φιλοχωρεῖ οὗ ἂν οἰκῇ. Καὶ πίφιγξ καὶ ἅρπη καὶ ἰκτῖνος φίλοι, καὶ ἀλώπηξ καὶ ὄφις (ἄμφω γὰρ τρωγλοδύται), καὶ κόττυφος καὶ τρυγών. Πολέμιοι δὲ καὶ ὁ λέων καὶ ὁ θὼς ἀλλήλοις· ὠμοφάγοι γὰρ ὄντες ἀπὸ τῶν αὐτῶν ζῶσιν. Μάχονται δὲ καὶ ἐλέφαντες σφοδρῶς πρὸς ἀλλήλους, καὶ τύπτουσι τοῖς ὀδοῦσι σφᾶς αὐτούς· ὁ δὲ ἡττηθεὶς δουλοῦται ἰσχυρῶς, καὶ οὐχ ὑπομένει τὴν τοῦ νικήσαντος φωνήν. Διαφέρουσι δὲ καὶ τῇ ἀνδρίᾳ ἀλλήλων οἱ ἐλέφαντες θαυμαστὸν ὅσον. Χρῶνται δ’ οἱ Ἰνδοὶ πολεμιστηρίοις, καθάπερ τοῖς ἄρρεσι, καὶ ταῖς θηλείαις· εἰσὶ μέντοι καὶ ἐλάττονες αἱ θήλειαι καὶ ἀψυχότεραι πολύ. Τοὺς δὲ τοίχους καταβάλλει ὁ ἐλέφας τοὺς ὀδόντας τοὺς μεγάλους προσβάλλων· τοὺς δὲ φοίνικας τῷ μετώπῳ, ἕως ἂν κατακλίνῃ, ἔπειτα τοῖς ποσὶν ἐπιβαίνων κατατείνει ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς. Ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἡ θήρα τῶν ἐλεφάντων τοιάδε· ἀναβάντες ἐπί τινας τῶν τιθασσῶν καὶ ἀνδρείων διώκουσι, καὶ ὅταν καταλάβωσι, τύπτειν προστάττουσι τούτοις, ἕως ἂν ἐκλύσωσιν· τότε δ’ ὁ ἐλεφαντιστὴς ἐπιπηδήσας κατευθύνει τῷ δρεπάνῳ. Ταχέως δὲ μετὰ ταῦτα τιθασσεύεταί τε καὶ πειθαρχεῖ. Ἐπιβεβηκότος μὲν οὖν τοῦ ἐλεφαντιστοῦ ἅπαντες πραεῖς εἰσίν, ὅταν δ’ ἀποβῇ, οἱ μὲν οἱ δ’ οὔ· ἀλλὰ τῶν ἐξαγριουμένων τὰ ἐμπρόσθια σκέλη δεσμεύουσι σειραῖς, ἵν’ ἡσυχάζωσιν. Ἔστι δ’ ἡ θήρα καὶ μεγάλων ἤδη ὄντων καὶ πώλων. Αἱ μὲν οὖν φιλίαι καὶ οἱ πόλεμοι τοῖς θηρίοις τούτοις διὰ τὰς τροφὰς καὶ τὸν βίον συμβαίνουσιν.

Now there is war among those animals that occupy the same places and get their living from the same things. For if food is scarce, even animals of the same kind fight one another: they say, for instance, that the seals that live about the same place make war, male on male and female on female, until one kills the other or is driven out by it; and their young all do the same. Further, all animals are at war with the flesh-eaters, and these with the others, for their food comes from animals. This is why the seers take signs of 'sitting apart' and 'sitting together', counting as 'apart' the creatures that are hostile, and as 'together' those that are at peace with one another. It may well be that, if there were plenty of food, the animals that now fear men and are savage would be tame towards men, and towards one another in the same way. The care given to animals in Egypt makes this plain: because food is there and they are not in want, even the very wildest live together; for they are tamed by the benefits, as in some places the crocodile kind is tame towards the priest because he takes care to feed them. The same thing can be seen happening in other countries too, and in parts of them. The eagle and the snake are enemies, for the eagle feeds on snakes. So are the ichneumon and the venomous spider, for the ichneumon hunts these spiders. Among birds, the poikilides, the crested larks, the pipra and the chloreus, for they eat one another's eggs. And the crow and the owl: since the owl does not see sharply by day, the crow at midday snatches and eats its eggs, while the owl by night eats those of the crow; the one is the stronger by day, the other by night. The owl and the wren are also enemies, for the wren too eats the owl's eggs. By day the other small birds fly around the owl, which is called 'admiring' it, and fly at it and pluck its feathers; for this reason bird-catchers use it to catch all kinds of small birds. The bird called the 'old man' is also at war with the weasel and the crow, for they eat its eggs and its young. So are the turtle-dove and the pyrallis, for their feeding-ground and way of life are the same. And the green woodpecker and the libyos. And the kite and the raven: the kite takes from the raven whatever it has, because it is stronger in its claws and in flight, so that food makes these enemies too. Further, the birds that get their living from the sea are enemies to one another, such as the brenthos, the gull and the harpē. The buzzard is at war with the toad and the snake, for the buzzard eats them. The turtle-dove and the chloreus: the chloreus kills the turtle-dove, and the crow kills the bird called typanos. The aigōlios and the other birds with hooked talons eat the kalaris; hence the war between them. There is war too between the gecko and the spider, for the gecko eats spiders. And between the pipo and the heron, for it eats the heron's eggs and young. Between the aigithos and the ass there is war, because the ass, as it passes by, rubs its sores against the thorns; for this reason, and also if it brays, it throws out the eggs and the young, for they fall out in fright; and the bird, because of this harm, flies at it and pecks at its sores. The wolf is an enemy to the ass, the bull and the fox; for being a flesh-eater it attacks cattle, asses and the fox. So are the fox and the kirkos, for the same reason: being hook-taloned and a flesh-eater, it attacks and makes wounds with its blows. The raven too is an enemy to the bull and the ass, because it flies at them and strikes them and pecks their eyes. The eagle and the heron are also at war; for the eagle, being hook-taloned, attacks, and the heron dies defending itself. The aisalōn is an enemy to the vulture; and the krex to the eleos, the blackbird and the chloriōn, which some say in their tales was born from a funeral pyre; for it harms both them and their young. The nuthatch and the trochilos are enemies to the eagle; for the nuthatch breaks the eagle's eggs, and the eagle, both for this reason and because it is a flesh-eater, is an enemy to all. The anthos is an enemy to the horse, for the horse drives it out of the pasture; for the anthos feeds on grass, and it has a film over its eyes and is not sharp-sighted; it imitates the horse's voice, and frightens it by flying at it, and drives it out; but when [the horse] catches it, it kills it. The anthos lives by rivers and marshes; it has a fine colour and lives an easy life. The ass is an enemy to the kōlōtēs [lizard]; for [the lizard] sleeps in its manger and stops it eating by getting into its nostrils. Of herons there are three kinds: the pellos, the white, and the one called the asterias ('starry'). Of these the pellos couples and mates with difficulty; for it cries out and, as they say, sheds blood from its eyes when mating, and it lays its eggs badly and painfully. It is at war with those that harm it: the eagle (for it seizes it), the fox (for it destroys it at night) and the lark (for it steals its eggs). The snake is an enemy to the weasel and the pig: to the weasel when both are in a house, for they live on the same things; and the pig eats snakes. The aisalōn too is an enemy to the fox, for it strikes her and plucks her and kills her young; for it is hook-taloned. The raven and the fox are friends to each other, for the raven is at war with the aisalōn; and so it helps the fox when she is being struck. The vulture and the aisalōn are also enemies to each other, for both are hook-taloned. The vulture and the swan also fight the eagle, and the swan often wins; and of all birds, swans are the most given to eating one another. Among wild animals, some are always hostile to one another, others, as men are, when it so happens. The ass and the akanthides are enemies: they live off thistles, and the ass eats the thistles while they are tender. So are the anthos, the akanthis and the aigithos; and it is said that the blood of the aigithos and of the anthos will not mix together. The crow and the heron are friends, and the schoiniōn and the lark, and the laedos and the green woodpecker; for the green woodpecker lives by rivers and thickets, and the laedos among rocks and mountains, and it is attached to the place where it lives. And the piphinx, the harpē and the kite are friends; and the fox and the snake (for both live in holes); and the blackbird and the turtle-dove. The lion and the jackal are enemies to each other, for being flesh-eaters they live on the same things. Elephants too fight fiercely with one another and strike each other with their tusks; and the one that is beaten is utterly cowed, and cannot bear the voice of the victor. Elephants also differ from one another in courage to an astonishing degree. The Indians use the females for war as well as the males; the females, however, are smaller and much less spirited. The elephant knocks down walls by battering them with its great tusks, and palm trees with its forehead until it bends them over, and then, treading on them with its feet, it stretches them out on the ground. Elephants are hunted in this way: men mount some of the tame and brave ones and give chase, and when they catch up, they order these to strike them until they wear them out; then the elephant-driver leaps on and steers it with his sickle. Soon after this it is tamed and obeys. While the driver is mounted, all of them are gentle; but when he gets off, some are and some are not; and they bind the forelegs of those that turn savage with ropes, so that they keep quiet. They are hunted both when already full-grown and as young ones. So the friendships and wars of these animals come about because of their food and their way of life.